Adaptation and validation of a Spanish-language version of the Frontotemporal Dementia Rating Scale (FTD-FRS). / Adaptación y validación de la Frontotemporal Dementia Rating Scale (FTD-FRS) al castellano.

INTRODUCTION: The Frontotemporal Dementia Rating Scale (FTD-FRS) is a tool designed to aid with clinical staging and assessment of the progression of frontotemporal dementia (FTD-FRS). OBJECTIVE: Present a multicentre adaptation and validation study of a Spanish version of the FRS. METHODOLOGY: The adapted version was created using 2 translation-back translation processes (English to Spanish, Spanish to English) and verified by the scale's original authors. We validated the adapted version in a sample of consecutive patients diagnosed with FTD. The procedure included evaluating internal consistency, testing unidimensionality with the Rasch model, analysing construct validity and discriminant validity, and calculating the degree of agreement between the Clinical Dementia Rating scale (CDR) and FTD-FRS for FTD cases. RESULTS: The study included 60 patients with DFT. The mean score on the FRS was 12.1 points (SD=6.5; range, 2-25) with inter-group differences (F=120.3; df=3; P<.001). Cronbach's alpha was 0.897 and principal component analysis of residuals delivered an acceptable eigenvalue for 5 contrasts (1.6-2.7) and 36.1% raw variance. FRS was correlated with the Mini-mental State Examination (r=0.572; P<.001) and functional capacity (DAD; r=0.790; P<.001). FTD-FRS also showed a significant correlation with CDR (r=-0.641; P<.001), but we did observe variability in the severity levels; cases appeared to be less severe according to the CDR than when measured with the FTD-FRS (kappa=0.055). CONCLUSIONS: This process of validating the Spanish translation of the FTD-FRS yielded satisfactory results for validity and unidimensionality (severity) in the assessment of patients with FTD.

[Physical activity and nutritional and psychosocial status in non-dependent elderly]. / La actividad física y el estado nutricional y psicosocial del anciano no dependiente.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the level of physical activity (PA) of a sample of independent non-institutionalised elderly and its relationship between nutritional status and psychosocial conditions of the elderly. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A multicentre cross-sectional descriptive study carried out in Health Centres of the city of Huesca in a sample size of patients over 75 years-old. Demographic, psychosocial, nutritional, anthropometric, and PA variables were analysed. The short scale of Minnesota in Spanish (VREM) was used to measure the latter. RESULTS: The mean age was 81.58 years (±4) with a gender distribution of 51.7% women. The group were in a good health condition overall: Mild physical impairment (45%), correct mental health as regards cognition (93%) or mood (88%), favourable social status (96%), independence for activities of daily living (100%), and a good perceived quality of life (score>70 in 70%). There was a mean of 4666.2 METS-Min/14 days obtained in PA, and 10% of the participants were identified as sedentary. A statistically significant inverse relationship (P<.05) was observed between PA and functional disability, sarcopenia and body composition (waist circumference, sagittal abdominal diameter, mass index, and body fat percentage). No significant relationship was observed between PA and nutritional status and psychosocial conditions. The relationship between the nutritional status and the variables of the psychosocial sphere was significant (P<.01). CONCLUSIONS: The characteristics of the population studied in the organic, functional, psychical, and social spheres do not suggest important limitations for PA. An insignificant percentage of the elderly does not perform enough PA. There is a significant relationship between physical exercise and favourable body composition rates.

[What is theory of mind?]. / Qué es la teoría de la mente?

INTRODUCTION: The brain is, basically speaking, a predictive machine, designed to reduce environmental incertitude. The theory of mind originated from a concept found in the pioneer works of Premack and Woodruf and refers to the ability to understand and predict the behaviour of other people, their knowledge, intentions, emotions and beliefs. This term was initially confined to the study of primatology and aetiology of autism, proposing that the cause of generalised disorders in development was an absence of theory of mind. In recent years however we have observed a great proliferation of studies on this complex concept and its affectation in various pathologies. DEVELOPMENT: This work proposes dividing the concept of theory of mind into different processes and how to evaluate each one. It furthermore aims at establishing the brain structures related with each level of theory of mind. These levels of complexity are: facial recognition of emotions, first and second order beliefs, social usage of language, social behaviour and empathy. CONCLUSIONS: To conclude, we reflect on certain relevant theoretic concepts on the matter such as the role of prefrontal cortex in the theory of mind, the categorical versus dimensional when we refer to this type of concept; modularity or neural systems, emotional and social intelligence versus cognitive intelligence or the role of bi-directionality in these complex cognitive processes.

[A proposal for a protocol for use in the evaluation of the executive functions]. / Propuesta de un protocolo para la evaluación de las funciones ejecutivas.

INTRODUCTION: Executive functions include a variety of components such as the capacity implicated in goal formulation, the faculties employed in processes planning, and the strategies used to achieve the pretended objectives. In a previous work, taking as starting basis those models which have attempted to clarify those processes implicated in executive functions, we posed an integrative model. DEVELOPMENT: Starting from this model, we now propose an assessment protocol. Thus, executive functions considered as problem solving, require in generic terms, objective selection, planning, and monitoring processes (tower of Hanoi and zoo map). Each of these sub-processes operate through the working memory both with the visospatial sketch and the phonological loop. The central executive system, or attentional supervisor system (ASS), acts when there is no known solution and we must create an alternative one. CONCLUSIONS: In this sense, the ASS could contain the following functions: amplification of the phonological loop and visospatial sketch capacity (Sternberg type tasks), information manipulation and actualization (n-back paradigm), information manipulation and maintenance (Wechsler Memory Scale letters and numbers), simultaneously work in two cognitive tasks (dual execution tasks), inhibition (Stroop and go-no go paradigms), and cognitive sets alternation (Wisconsin Card Sorting Test). Once this planning process has been done, we must take a decision (gambling task paradigm), being the somatic marker in charge of this process.

[Towards a taxonomy of consciousness]. / Hacia una taxonomía de la conciencia.

INTRODUCTION: There are many definitions in order to describe the consciousness. In the literature appear concepts such alertness, attention, knowledge, conscious experience, awareness of deficits, self awareness, theory of mind in relation with consciousness definition. This multiplicity conceptual lead to formulate a question: Do exist different levels of complexity in the consciousness that depend on neuroanatomics structures differentiated? METHOD: In this paper an approximation toward a taxonomy of consciousness is offered and five levels of complexity and its relation with cerebral structures differentiated are suggested. In the first place, it s consider the alertness state as a necessary condition to exist the consciousness and his relation with attentional states. In the second place, it s present the conscious experience that depends on synchronicity neural activity. On the other hand, the daily clinic work shows the possibility of the existence of a consciousness for each specific field of knowledge. In the fourth place, it s located the self awareness understood like the capacity to perceive to us with objectivity but maintaining a subjectivity sense. At last, the theory of mind refers to the ability for attribute to the others specific mental states. CONCLUSION: It s plan an analysis of the different models that have tried to give an answer to each one of complexity levels to attempt an approach based on the analytic science and not descriptive plane.

[Neuropsychological deficits in hydrocephalus associated spina bifida]. / Déficit neuropsicológicos en hidrocefalia relacionada con espina bífida.

INTRODUCTION. The term spina bifida is used to describe a large number of abnormalities in which the common denominator is incomplete posterior fusion of the vertebral arches. DEVELOPMENT. Spina bifida, as a congenital alteration affecting closure of the neural tube frequently appears in relation to hydrocephaly. The object of this article is to review the neuropsychological alterations which occur in hydrocephaly, with special reference to hydrocephaly linked to spina bifida. The authors suggest consideration of these alterations in view of the new models of cognitive neuropsychology. The commonest alterations are those affecting visual-perceptive and visual-constructive function, working memory, pragmatic use of language and executive functions.

[Executive functions: the need for the integration of concepts]. / Funciones ejecutivas: necesidad de una integración conceptual.

INTRODUCTION: The new cognitive neuropsychology approaches have aroused an increasing interest in understanding the higher cognitive processes as well as the neural substrates linked to them. Particularly, the executive functions, reckoned to be essential to control the information processing and to co ordinate behaviour, have received preferential treatment from specialised literature on the subject. DEVELOPMENT: From obsessive compulsive disorder to schizophrenia, from Parkinson s disease to multiple sclerosis, there are many reports that show the affectation of these functions in all these morbid processes. On the other hand, the part that the prefrontal cortex plays in human behaviour in general, and in executive functions in particular, constitutes one of the most important fields of research of neurosciences nowadays. Thus, this cortical area appears closely linked to the executive processes, affecting different respects of the cognitive functions. Working memory, supervisory attentional system, somatic marker, information processing, behaviour planning, social judgement, are processes which have been related to the prefrontal cortex activity as a structure, and to the executive processes as a function. CONCLUSIONS: The aim of this article is to revise the concept of executive functions, and give rise reflections about the usefulness of the aforementioned concept and its practical applicability. It is essential that we understand the difference between structure and function, cognition and emotion, brain activity and behaviour, category and dimension, and between mind and brain, to achieve a more comprehensive approach to this concept of executive functions we all use, and many times find difficult to define and to understand.

[The nature, diagnosis and treatment of post-concussion syndrome]. / Sobre la naturaleza, diagnóstico y tratamiento del síndrome posconmocional.

INTRODUCTION: The relationship between brief loss of consciousness, subsequent cognitive and emotional complaints, and impact on daily functioning continues to be hotly debated. DEVELOPMENT: In this paper the strong variability about prevalence of the postconcussional syndrome found in several studies is outstanding and the main issues of this disagreement are suggested. Recent neuroimaging techniques are discussed and some neuropsychological measures are suggested. CONCLUSIONS: Currents models (organic/psychogenic) of postconcussional symptoms are reviewed, and a multifactorial model which integrates biological factors with the relevance of neuropsychological deficits--attention, memory, speed of information processing--and coping process is proposed. Finally, according with this model, we conclude with some suggestions to improve neuropsychological intervention and medical treatment of these patients.

[Prognostic factors in head injuries]. / Factores de pronóstico en los traumatismos craneoencefálicos.

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVE: Establishment of the prognosis after traumatic brain damage is an important question for doctors, patients and their families, as well as for health organizations and insurers. The precision of the prognosis varies markedly according to the final objective of the prediction (mortality, severity and type of residual defects, return to work), apart from consideration of the many factors which may affect the clinical course after this type of lesion. Our study considers the current state of this question. DEVELOPMENT: We consider the main methodological difficulties in carrying out such studies and review the main variables affecting the prognosis in head injuries, divided into three general groups (severity and type of lesion, characteristics of the individual and variables depending on the context). Finally, we make general comments on the effect of multidisciplinary rehabilitation in relation to the functional prognosis and level of social and employment integration attained by the injured persons.

[Differential diagnosis of post-concussive syndrome]. / Diagnóstico diferencial del síndrome posconmocional.

INTRODUCTION: Posconcussional syndrome is characterized by a heterogeneous group of somatic, cognitive and psychosocial symptoms, which occur in patients with head trauma, generally of mild severity. It is the neuropsychiatric postraumatic disorder more prevalent in the field of forensic medicine. DEVELOPMENT: Classical authors (Lishamn and Barraquer, for example) focused on controversial aspects of this syndrome, such as conceptual problems and etiology (organic versus functional). The objective of this report is to review the posconcussional literature in search of relevant aspects in forensic neuropsychology: conceptual aspects, epidemiology, etiology, clinical features, methodology for assessment, and its differential diagnosis with other postraumatic disorders, such as postraumatic stress disorder, adjustment disorder, anxiety disorder, mood disorders (major depressive disorder), substancerelated disorders, dementia due to head trauma, amnesic disorder, somatoform disorders, factitious disorder, malingering, chronic pain and chronic whiplash syndrome.

[Nosologic aspects of personality change due to head trauma]. / Consideraciones nosológicas del cambio de personalidad postraumático.

INTRODUCTION: Personality change due to head injury is one of the most prevalent neuropsychiatric posttraumatic disorders and causes significant impairment in familial, social or occupational functioning. OBJECTIVES: To study the prevalence and clinical characteristics of personality changes secondary to severe closed head injuries, according to DSM-IV criteria. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Fifty-five patients (aged 15-65 years) with severe head trauma were studied during the chronic stage (11-3 months) with the following instruments: the Revised Iowa Collateral Head Injury Interview for the assessment of posttraumatic frontal symptoms, the Standardized Polyvalent Psychiatric Interview of Lobo et al, assessment of premorbid personality and its exacerbation, and the Scale of Aggressiveness of Yudofsky. RESULTS: Thirty-three patients (60% of the sample) fulfilled DSM-IV criteria for personality change due to head injury; two thirds of them were combined or mixed type, which consists in the association of two or more types specified in the DSM-IV. The most prevalent types were apathic, unstable, disinhibited, aggressive, which are related with lesions in prefrontal cortex. There were nine patients with 'unspecified' symptoms, such as 'inappropriate euphoria' and 'poor insight', and other symptoms related to executive dysfunction. CONCLUSIONS: One third of cases of personality changes were related to premorbid features; this fact argues against the exclusion of the criterium 'excerbation of premorbid personality traits' in DSM-IV. Only one third of posttraumatic personality changes can be classified according to DSM-IV and ICD-10 criteria. The high prevalence of symptoms related to deficit in self-awareness and executive dysfunction suggest the need of further investigations about nosology in this field.

[Models of executive control and functions. II]. / Modelos de funciones y control ejecutivo. II.

INTRODUCTION: Current models of the executive functions enable us to state that this construct embraces a large number of processes and sub processes that are in turn linked to different regions of the brain, and more specifically to the prefrontal cortex. Recent data suggest that different areas of the prefrontal cortex may be involved in a number of aspects related to executive functioning. DEVELOPMENT: The aim of this article is to review the most important models of executive functioning in order to shed light on this controversial construct. The models put forward to date approach the same reality from a number of different perspectives, although in some cases they neglect certain parts of that reality. In this second part of our paper, we review the dynamic filter theory, the differential axes model, the theory of cognitive complexity and control, the theory of hierarchical representation, the attentional control model, the supervisory attentional system and the input hypothesis. CONCLUSIONS: From the results obtained in the studies that were reviewed we can state that it is possible to divide the 'executive functions' construct into sub processes in order to make understanding, assessment and intervention easier. Each of these sub processes seems to be related to a specific area in the prefrontal cortex, although a particular region can be involved in different aspects of executive functioning at different moments in time.

[Models of executive control and functions (I)]. / Modelos de funciones y control ejecutivo (I).

INTRODUCTION: As human beings we are capable of coping with novel situations and adapting to changes in a flexible manner. The cognitive skills that allow individuals to control and regulate their behaviour are called executive functions. Anatomically, the executive functions depend on a distributed neural system, in which the prefrontal cortex plays an essential role. Recent data suggest that different regions of the prefrontal cortex may be involved in a number of aspects of executive functioning. DEVELOPMENT: The purpose of this article is to carry out a review of the main models of executive functioning in order to shed light on this controversial construct. The models put forward to date approach the same reality from a number of different perspectives, in some case avoiding certain parts of that reality. In this first part, we review the models and theories of contextual information, structured complex events, working memory, adaptive encoding, Miller and Cohen's integrating theory, and the factorial models of executive control. CONCLUSIONS: There is no single model that allows us to explain how specific cognitive processes are controlled and coordinated while complex cognitive activities are being performed. Nevertheless, some agreement has been reached on accepting the idea that the executive functions construct does not consist of a single concept, but instead a combination of several cognitive processes that combine in a number of ways in order to operate in different situations.

[A revised Iowa collateral head injury interview: a new instrument for the assessment of traumatic psychosocial frontal symptoms]. / La Entrevista de Iowa Revisada: un nuevo instrumento para valoración colateral de los síntomas frontales postraumáticos.

OBJECTIVE: To validate a semi-structured Revised Iowa Collateral Head Injury Interview (RICHII) to assess post-traumatic, psychosocial frontal symptoms. METHOD: 1. To revise the RICHII in the light of recent research findings and previous pilot studies. 2. External experts assure face and content validity. 3. Standard reliability and validity study in a sample of consecutive patients fulfilling inclusion and exclusion criteria of severe head trauma. 4. Principal component analysis and distribution of results of RICHII administration to the full sample (N= 55). RESULTS: Several original items were modified and two new items (inappropriate euphoria and affective unstableness) were incorporated, as well as a new, graded scoring system. Feasibility, internal consistency (Cronbach's alfa= 0.94), inter-rater reliability (n= 40, kappa= 0.60) and test-retest reliability (n= 25, kappa= 0.70) were quite acceptable. Four factors emerged in the factor analysis, explaining a high percentage of the variance; they tend to reflect modern knowledge in the field and are judged to support the construct validity of the RICHII. More than two thirds of patients (70.9%) scored high in at least one of the items. CONCLUSION: This is the first report about the reliability and validity of a collateral interview to assess post-traumatic, psychosocial frontal symptoms.

[Gerstmann-Straussler syndrome clinical and neuromorphofunctional diagnosis: a case report]. / Síndrome de Gerstmann-Straussler: Diagnóstico clínico y neuromorfofuncional. A propósito de un caso.

UNLABELLED: The Syndrome of Gerstmann-Straussler is a constellation of typical symptoms that affects the parietotemporal crossroad and also involves the contiguous parts of the occipital lobe of the dominant hemisphere. Is a family ailment that starts with an espinocerebellar ataxy followed by dementia. Diagnosis options such as EEG, TC, RM and brain SPECT-99mTc-HMPAO have been carried out in an adult with Gerstmann Syndrome. RESULTS: The brain SPECT disclosed a disminution of the flow at the parietotemporooccipital areas of both hemispheres. The results revealed a clinical and a neuromorphofunctional correlation. CONCLUSION: Brain SPECT is a complementary test to the structural neuroradiological examinations, such as TC and RM, that occasionally is useful not only to clarify but also to widen the information that these offer.

[Reliability of the evaluation of regional cerebral blood flow using SPECT in chronic schizophrenia and bipolar disorder]. / Fiabilidad de la evaluación del flujo sanguíneo cerebral regional FSCR mediante SPECT en esquizofrenia crónica y trastorno bipolar.

OBJECTS: Demonstrate the reliability of cerebral SPECT using 99 mTc-HMPAO. METHODS & MATERIALS: Evaluation of cerebral blood flow using SPECT in 24 patients with schizophrenia, 24 patients with bipolar disorder and 20 controls. In the study we have reliability between observers and intraobserver. In both cases kappa statistic has been applied for measuring reliability. RESULTS: reliability between observers represents a kappa coefficient of 0.71. Intraobserver reliability, with a medium grade concordance slightly superior, shows a medium kappa coefficient of 0.74. CONCLUSIONS: Visual evaluation of SPECT images using 99mTc--HMPAO is a trustworthy technique to document the different patterns of regional cerebral blood flow. Reliability is determinate by the improvement, during visual analysis of reliability between observers (kappa: 0.71) and intraobservers (kappa: 0.74).