New insights into the comorbid conditions of Turner syndrome: results from a long-term monocentric cohort study.

PURPOSE: Many questions concerning Turner syndrome (TS) remain unresolved, such as the long-term complications and, therefore, the optimal care setting for adults. The primary aim of this long-term cohort study was to estimate the incidence of comorbid conditions along the life course. METHODS: A total of 160 Italian patients with TS diagnosed from 1967 to 2010 were regularly and structurally monitored from the diagnosis to December 2019 at the University Hospital of Bologna using a structured multidisciplinary monitoring protocol. RESULTS: The study cohort was followed up for a median of 27 years (IQR 12-42). Autoimmune diseases were the comorbid condition with the highest incidence (61.2%), followed by osteoporosis and hypertension (23.8%), type 2 diabetes (16.2%) and tumours (15.1%). Median age of onset ranged from 22 years for autoimmune diseases to 39 years for type 2 diabetes. Malignant tumours were the most prominent type of neoplasm, with a cumulative incidence of 11.9%. Papillary thyroid carcinoma was the most common form of cancer, followed by skin cancer and cancer of the central nervous system. Only one major cardiovascular event (acute aortic dissection) was observed during follow-up. No cases of ischaemic heart disease, heart failure, stroke or death were recorded. CONCLUSIONS: This cohort study confirms the need for continuous, structured and multidisciplinary lifelong monitoring of TS, thus ensuring the early diagnosis of important comorbid conditions, including cancer, and their appropriate and timely treatment. In addition, these data highlight the need for the increased surveillance of specific types of cancer in TS, including thyroid carcinoma.

Diabetes mellitus induced by immune checkpoint inhibitors: type 1 diabetes variant or new clinical entity? Review of the literature.

Immune Check-Point Inhibitors (CPIs) have improved long-term patients' outcomes in several advanced cancers. Diabetes mellitus induced by CPIs (CPI-DM) is considered the second most frequent endocrine CPIs' side effects with a variable prevalence up to 2%. The aim of our study was to identify CPI-DM characteristics and differences from the classical form of diabetes. Therefore, we conducted a structured Pubmed® search collecting publications dated from January 2015 to December 2019. A total of 642 citations were identified and 121 publications met our study criteria. We analyzed 200 case reports, including our 3 cases under publication. The majority of CPI-DM occurred with anti-Programmed cell Death-1 in monotherapy or in combination, although few cases with Programmed cell Death Ligand-1 and Cytotoxic T Lymphocyte Antigen 4 were reported. Generally, CPI-DM arose early (an average of 9 weeks after CPIs starting), but also after the end of CPIs treatment. In all patients, CPI-DM has an acute onset and in 67.5% of cases diabetic ketoacidosis occurs. C-peptide levels were usually and permanently compromised, requiring lifelong insulin therapy. Moreover, autoimmunity and genetic profile was not always helpful. In particular, anti-glutamic acid decarboxylase (anti-GAD) antibodies and Human Leukocyte Antigen (HLA) DR4 were present in only 43.0% and 51.3% of cases respectively. In 51.0% of subjects a mild exocrine impairment coexisted. In short, though CPI-DM has similarities to type 1 diabetes mellitus, it represents a new, largely unknown, clinical entity. In addition, as CPI-DM is a relative frequent side-effect under CPI, a close monitoring of the glucose levels and early signs and symptoms of diabetes in patients affected by neoplasm is recommended.

Steroid biomarkers for identifying non-classic adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency in a population of PCOS with suspicious levels of 17OH-progesterone.

OBJECTIVE: We aimed at defining the most effective routine immunoassay- or liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS)-determined steroid biomarkers for identifying non-classic adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency (21-NCAH) in a PCOS-like population before genotyping. METHODS: Seventy PCOS-like patients in reproductive age with immunoassay-determined follicular 17OH-progesterone (17OHP) ≥ 2.00 ng/mL underwent CYP21A2 gene analysis and 1-24ACTH test. Serum steroids were measured by immunoassays at baseline and 60 min after ACTH stimulation; basal steroid profile was measured by LC-MS/MS. RESULTS: Genotyping revealed 23 21-NCAH, 15 single allele heterozygous CYP21A2 mutations (21-HTZ) and 32 PCOS patients displaying similar clinical and metabolic features. Immunoassays revealed higher baseline 17OHP and testosterone, and after ACTH stimulation, higher 17OHP (17OHP60) and lower cortisol, whereas LC-MS/MS revealed higher 17OHP (17OHPLC-MS/MS), progesterone and 21-deoxycortisol and lower corticosterone in 21-NCAH compared with both 21-HTZ and PCOS patients. Steroid thresholds best discriminating 21-NCAH from 21-HTZ and PCOS were estimated, and their diagnostic accuracy in identifying 21-NCAH from PCOS was established by ROC analysis. The highest accuracy was observed for 21-deoxycortisol ≥ 0.087 ng/mL, showing 100% sensitivity, while the combination of 17OHPLC-MS/MS ≥ 1.79 ng/mL and corticosterone ≤ 8.76 ng/mL, as well as the combination of ACTH-stimulated 17OHP ≥ 6.77 ng/mL and cortisol ≤ 240 ng/mL by immunoassay, showed 100% specificity. CONCLUSIONS: LC-MS/MS measurement of basal follicular 21-deoxycortisol, 17OHP and corticosterone seems the most convenient method for diagnosing 21-NCAH in a population of PCOS with a positive first level screening, providing high accuracy and reducing the need for ACTH stimulation test.

Behavioral, socio-environmental, educational and demographic correlates of excess body weight in Italian adolescents and young adults.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Excess body weight (EBW) is the most prevalent nutritional disorder among adolescents worldwide. Identifying determinants of EBW may help find new intervention strategies. Behavioral, socio-economic, educational and demographic correlates of EBW were examined in a population of Italian adolescents, separately for males and females. METHODS AND RESULTS: As many as 1039 male and 2052 female students (aged 16-19 ys) attending the last three years of different types of high-school of the Emilia-Romagna region in Italy were offered participation, with 552 males and 841 females being finally evaluated. The prevalence of EBW was 21.0% in males and 14.1% in females. Step-wise multivariate logistic regression analyses were performed showing that EBW was negatively related to energy intake in males (odds ratio for 100 kcal/day (OR) = 0.94, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.89 to 0.98; P = 0.008), and to father's educational attainment (OR = 0.70, 95% CI: 0.52 to 0.95; P = 0.020), but positively related to parental obesity (OR = 2.80, 95% CI: 1.65 to 4.76; P < 0.001). In females, EBW was positively related to parental obesity (OR = 1.94, 95% CI: 1.15 to 3.29; P = 0.013), but negatively to mother's educational attainment (OR = 0.66, 95% CI: 0.45 to 0.97; P = 0.034) and type of attended school (OR = 0.66, 95% CI: 0.49 to 0.89; P = 0.007). Mother's occupation was also an independent determinant of EBW status in females (OR = 0.39, 95% CI: 0.18 to 0.85; P = 0.018 for being unemployed vs blue-collar). CONCLUSION: Parental obesity is associated with EBW in male and female adolescents. Importantly, we found sex differences in socio-economic and educational factors impacting on EBW, supporting possible distinct area of investigation.

Endocrine dysfunction in hereditary hemochromatosis.

Hereditary hemochromatosis (HH) is a genetic disorder of iron overload and subsequent organ damage. Five types of HH are known, classified by age of onset, genetic cause, clinical manifestations and mode of inheritance. Except for the rare form of juvenile haemochromatosis, symptoms do not usually appear until after decades of progressive iron loading and may be triggered by environmental and lifestyle factors. Despite the last decades discovery of genetic and phenotype diversity of HH, early studies showed a frequent involvement of the endocrine glands where diabetes and hypogonadism are the most common encountered endocrinopathies. The pathogenesis of diabetes is still relatively unclear, but the main mechanisms include the loss of insulin secretory capacity and insulin resistance secondary to liver damage. The presence of obesity and/or genetic predisposition may represent addictive risk factor for the development of this metabolic disease. Although old cases of primary gonad involvement are described, hypogonadism is mainly secondary to selective deposition of iron on the gonadotropin-producing cells of the pituitary gland, leading to hormonal impaired secretion. Cases of hypopituitarism or selected tropin defects, and abnormalities of adrenal, thyroid and parathyroid glands, even if rare, are reported. The prevalence of individual gland dysfunction varies enormously within studies for several bias due to small numbers of and selected cases analyzed, mixed genotypes and missing data on medical history. Moreover, in the last few years early screening and awareness of the disease among physicians have allowed hemochromatosis to be diagnosed in most cases at early stages when patients have no symptoms. Therefore, the clinical presentation of this disease has changed significantly and the recognized common complications are encountered less frequently. This review summarizes the current knowledge on HH-associated endocrinopathies.

A placebo-controlled, randomized clinical trial using testosterone undecanoate with injectable norethisterone enanthate: effect on anthropometric, metabolic and biochemical parameters.

Testosterone administered alone or in combination with progestogens in male contraception induces reversible oligo-azoospermia, but its effects on body composition and metabolism are less known. We analysed anthropometric and metabolic parameters in five groups of 10 males: four receiving testosterone undecanoate (TU: 1000 mg) plus norethisterone enanthate (NETE: 200 mg) at different intervals (every 8 weeks: NETE-8; every 12 weeks: NETE-12; every 6 weeks for 12 weeks and then every 12 weeks: NETE-6/12; every 6 weeks for 12 weeks and then TU plus placebo every 12 weeks: NETE-6/12/0) and one placebo (NETE-0/0) for a total of 48 weeks. Body mass index (BMI) and waist circumference did not change in any groups except for the NETE-8 in which BMI increased significantly (p = 0.02) at the end of the treatment period. Lean body mass (MAMC or AMA) increased significantly in the highest hormonal dose groups (p = 0.04, NETE-6/12; p = 0.004, NETE-8). No differences were observed in glucose levels, insulin sensitivity index and lipid profile as well as in biochemical and cell count parameters in any groups. In conclusion, NETE and TU for 48 weeks were not accompanied by any metabolic changes and any adverse effects. The weight gain of the highest NETE plus TU dosage was mainly because of gain in muscle mass.

Current status and future perspectives in male contraception.

Contraception is a crucial human right for its role on health, development and quality of life. Since the introduction of hormonal female contraception the burden of family planning has fallen mostly on women. The few methods of family planning available for men--namely condoms, vasectomy, periodic abstinence and withdrawal--are hundred year old in concept, are based on preindustrial practices and have low efficacy or are difficult to reverse. In spite of the shortcomings of currently available male contraceptives, 1/3 of the couples that use contraception worldwide rely on male methods suggesting that development of a safe, effective, reversible and affordable contraceptive method for men would meet a critical need. Recent surveys have shown that men want to know more about reproductive health and want to support their partner more actively. In recent decades, there have been exceptional advances in the development of safer and more effective contraceptives. Currently, several methods of contraception for men are under development. This paper summarises the efforts performed over the past decades to develop an effective, safe and reversible male contraceptive.

Human chorionic gonadotropin stimulation gives evidence of differences in testicular steroidogenesis in Klinefelter syndrome, as assessed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry.

BACKGROUND: Men with Klinefelter syndrome (KS) show hypergonadotropic hypogonadism, but the pathogenesis of hypotestosteronemia remains unclear. Testicular steroidogenesis in KS men was evaluated over three decades ago after human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) stimulation, but inconclusive results were obtained. Intriguingly, some recent studies show increased intratesticular testosterone concentrations in men with KS. OBJECTIVE: To analyze serum steroid profile, as a proxy of testicular steroidogenesis, after hCG stimulation in KS compared with control men. DESIGN: A prospective, longitudinal, case-control, clinical trial. METHODS: Thirteen KS patients (36±9 years) not receiving testosterone (TS) replacement therapy and 12 eugonadic controls (32±8 years) were enrolled. Serum steroids were measured by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) at baseline and for five consecutive days after intramuscular injection of 5000IU hCG. RESULTS: Progesterone (P), 17-hydroxyprogesterone (17OHP), TS, and estradiol (E2) showed a significant increase (P<0.001) after hCG stimulation in both groups. On the contrary, androstenedione (AS) and dehydroepiandrosterone did not increase after hCG stimulation. The 17OHP/P ratio increased in both groups (P<0.001), the TS/AS ratio (17ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 (17ßHSD3) activity) did not increase after hCG in any group, and the E2/TS ratio (aromatase activity) increased significantly in both groups (P=0.009 in KS and P<0.001 in controls). Luteinizing hormone decreased after hCG in both groups (P=0.014 in KS and P<0.001 in controls), whereas follicle-stimulating hormone decreased only in control men (P<0.001). CONCLUSION: This study demonstrates for the first time using LC-MS/MS that Leydig cells of KS men are able to respond to hCG stimulation and that the first steps of steroidogenesis are fully functional. However, the TS production in KS men is impaired, possibly related to reduced hydroxysteroid deydrogenase activity due to an unfavorable intratesticular metabolic state.

Testosterone undecanoate maintains spermatogenic suppression induced by cyproterone acetate plus testosterone undecanoate in normal men.

In this study we evaluated whether testosterone undecanoate (TU), alone or combined with low dose cyproterone acetate (CPA), can maintain spermatogenic suppression induced by higher doses of CPA plus TU. Twenty-four men received for 12 wk 20 mg/d CPA plus 1000 mg/6 wk TU and then 1000 mg/8 wk TU plus 20 mg/d CPA (n = 8), 2 mg/d CPA (n = 8), or plus placebo (n = 8) for 32 wk. Blood samples, physical examinations, hormones, chemistry, hematology, semen analysis, and sexual/behavioral assessments were performed throughout the study. Sperm counts decreased to less than 1 million/ml in all subjects by wk 12, and 54% of them achieved azoospermia. Suppression of sperm counts was maintained until wk 44. Serum LH and FSH levels were suppressed by wk 12 of hormone administration and remained suppressed until wk 44. No significant changes in any biochemical parameters were detected at wk 44 in any group. There was a slight increase in total prostate volume to within the normal range at wk 44 that returned to baseline 1 yr after stopping hormone administration. In conclusion, TU alone or combined with lower doses of CPA maintains sperm suppression induced by higher dose CPA plus TU for 32 wk. This prototype regimen represents a promising male contraceptive regimen.

Testosterone in ageing men.

A progressive decline in androgen levels is a common finding in men after middle age. The resulting clinical picture may be characterised by alterations in the physical and psychological domains, which have been demonstrated to correlate positively with testosterone serum levels. This clinical picture closely resembles the features of primary or secondary hypogonadism. Testosterone is the more convenient hormone for substitution therapy in classic hypogonadism as well as in age-related hypoandrogenism. Different choices of testosterone preparations are currently available, which are characterised by different routes of administration and by various pharmacokinetic profiles. Two major achievements urgently need to be investigated in the near future: the ability of the new formulations to reach more physiological and sustained hormone levels with the concomitant amelioration of their tolerability and the evidence of long-term prospective studies aimed at demonstrating the benefits and the possible complications of this therapy.

Combined haploinsufficiency of SF-1 and GATA4 does not reveal a genetic interaction in mouse gonadal development.

The nuclear receptor steroidogenic factor 1 (SF-1 or NR5A1) and the zinc finger protein GATA4 mediate key events in the early steps of gonadal development and sex differentiation, presumably by activating the expression of essential target genes. An important SF-1 target in male sex differentiation is the gene encoding the anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH), which induces regression of the Müllerian ducts in the developing male embryo. In cell transfection studies, there is apparent cooperation between GATA4 and SF-1 in the regulation of both human and mouse Amh promoters. We hypothesized that compound haploinsufficiency of both SF-1 and GATA4, by reducing their synergism, might cause a more severe phenotype than that seen in mice that were heterozygous for either SF-1 or Gata4 alone. Surprisingly, in adult and embryonic mice, compound haploinsufficiency of SF-1 and GATA4 caused no gonadal or reproductive abnormalities beyond those seen in SF-1(+/-) mice. Thus, although cooperation between SF-1 and GATA4 very likely is important for regulation of their target genes, such synergy was not revealed in our in vivo studies of gonadal development and function.

Short-term modification of sex hormones is associated with changes in ghrelin circulating levels in healthy normal-weight men.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of selective and short-term sex hormone modifications on ghrelin levels in normal-weight eugonadal men undergoing hormonal contraceptive treatments. Seven men received an oral progestin [cyproterone acetate (CPA) or dienogest (DNG)] 10 mg/day for 3 weeks (CPA-DNG group), 7 CPA orally 5 mg/day in association with testosterone enanthate (TE) im 200 mg/week for 8 weeks (CPA-TE group), and 7 placebo (PLAC) for 8 weeks (PLAC group). Anthropometry and blood levels of LH, FSH, testosterone, estradiol, glucose, insulin and total ghrelin were evaluated. At baseline, no parameters differed among the three groups. After treatment, LH and FSH decreased in both CPA-DNG and CPA-TE groups, whereas they did not change in the PLAC group. Testosterone and estradiol decreased in the CPA-DNG group to the hypogonadal range, increased in the CPA-TE group to supraphysiological concentrations and, as expected, remained unchanged in the PLAC group. Total ghrelin levels increased in the CPA-DNG, decreased in the CPA-TE and did not change in the PLAC group. Ns modifications in the other parameters were observed in any group, demonstrating that the short-term changes of circulating sex hormones are able to modify ghrelin levels. These data, therefore, suggest that sex steroids are important regulators of ghrelin in normal-weight healthy men too.

Testosterone levels in obese male patients with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome: relation to oxygen desaturation, body weight, fat distribution and the metabolic parameters.

To investigate the impact of obstructive sleep apnea syndrome (OSAS) on testosterone levels and on the main parameters of the metabolic syndrome in abdominally obese men, 15 male subjects with abdominal obesity phenotype and polysomnographic diagnosis of OSAS (OB-OSAS) and 15 controls matched for age and anthropometric parameters (OB) were investigated. Anthropometry, SHBG, sex hormones and several parameters of the metabolic syndrome were measured. Only subjects with an Epworth Sleepiness Score greater than 10 underwent a polysomnographic study with calculation of the number of desaturation rates per sleeping hour (ODI), the minimal oxygen saturation during each desaturation episode (minSaO2) and the mean minimal arterial oxygen saturation for the whole night period (MminSaO2). Both total and free testosterone levels were lower in OB-OSAS than in OB patients. A negative correlation between polysomnographic parameters (ODI, minSaO2 and MminSaO2) and testosterone levels was found. The relationship between total and free testosterone and ODI persisted after adjusting for body mass index (BMI) and waist (W) values. Triglyceride and uric acid levels were significantly higher in OB-OSAS than in OB patients. A negative correlation between testosterone and acid uric level and a positive correlation between testosterone and HDL-cholesterol level was found, regardless of BMI and W circumference, particularly in the OB-OSAS group. Our study suggests that, in patients with obesity and OSAS, the severity of hypoxia during sleeping hours may be an additional factor in reducing testosterone levels, regardless of BMI and abdominal fatness. This may contribute in worsening metabolic abnormalities which, in men with OSAS, exceed those expected on the basis of degree of obesity and pattern of fat distribution.

Obesity and the polycystic ovary syndrome.

The polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a condition characterized by hyperandrogenism and chronic oligo-anovulation. However, many features of the metabolic syndrome are inconsistently present in the majority of women with PCOS. Approximately 50% of PCOS women are overweight or obese and most of them have the abdominal phenotype. Obesity may play a pathogenetic role in the development of the syndrome in susceptible individuals. In fact, insulin possesses true gonadotrophic function and an increased insulin availability at the level of ovarian tissue may favour excess androgen synthesis. Obesity, particularly the abdominal phenotype, may be partly responsible for insulin resistance and associated hyperinsulinemia in women with PCOS. Therefore, obesity-related hyperinsulinemia may play a key role in favouring hyperandrogenism in these women. Other factors such as increased estrogen production rate, increased activity of the opioid system and of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, decreased sex hormone binding globulin synthesis and, possibly, high dietary lipid intake, may be additional mechanisms by which obesity favours the development of hyperandrogenism in PCOS. Irrespective of the pathogenetic mechanism involved, obese PCOS women have more severe hyperandrogenism and related clinical features (such as hirsutism, menstrual abnormalities and anovulation) than normal-weight PCOS women. This picture tends to be more pronounced in obese PCOS women with the abdominal phenotype. Body weight loss is associated with beneficial effects on hormones, metabolism and clinical features. A further clinical and endocrinological improvement can also be achieved by adding insulin-sensitizing agents and/or antiandrogens to weight reduction programmes. These obviously emphasize the role of obesity in the pathophysiology of PCOS.