Getting less than their fair share: Maltreated youth are hyper-cooperative yet vulnerable to exploitation in a public goods game.

Human cooperative behavior has long been thought to decline under adversity. However, studies have primarily examined perceived patterns of cooperation, with little eye to actual cooperative behavior embedded within social interaction. Game-theoretical paradigms can help close this gap by unpacking subtle differences in how cooperation unfolds during initial encounters. This study is the first to use a child-appropriate, virtual, public goods game to study actual cooperative behavior in 329 participants aged 9-16 years with histories of maltreatment (n = 99) and no maltreatment (n = 230) while controlling for psychiatric symptoms. Unlike work on perceived patterns of cooperation, we found that maltreated participants actually contribute more resources to a public good during peer interaction than their nonmaltreated counterparts. This effect was robust when controlling for psychiatric symptoms and peer problems as well as demographic variables. We conclude that maltreatment may engender a hyper-cooperative strategy to minimize the odds of hostility and preserve positive interaction during initial encounters. This, however, comes at the cost of potential exploitation by others.

Latent trajectories of internalizing symptoms from preschool to school age: A multi-informant study in a high-risk sample.

Recent proposals suggest early adversity sets in motion particularly chronic and neurobiologically distinct trajectories of internalizing symptoms. However, few prospective studies in high-risk samples delineate distinct trajectories of internalizing symptoms from preschool age onward. We examined trajectories in a high-risk cohort, oversampled for internalizing symptoms, several preschool risk/maintenance factors, and school-age outcomes. Parents of 325 children completed the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire on up to four waves of data collection from preschool (3-5 years) to school age (8-9 years) and Preschool Age Psychiatric Assessment interviews at both ages. Multi-informant data were collected on risk factors and symptoms. Growth mixture modelling identified four trajectory classes of internalizing symptoms with stable low, rising low-to-moderate, stable moderate, and stable high symptoms. Children in the stable high symptom trajectory manifested clinically relevant internalizing symptoms, mainly diagnosed with anxiety disorders/depression at preschool and school age. Trajectories differed regarding loss/separation experience, maltreatment, maternal psychopathology, temperament, and stress-hormone regulation with loss/separation, temperament, maternal psychopathology, and stress-hormone regulation (trend) significantly contributing to explained variance. At school age, trajectories continued to differ on symptoms, disorders, and impairment. Our study is among the first to show that severe early adversity may trigger a chronic and neurobiologically distinct internalizing trajectory from preschool age onward.

Self, peer, and teacher reports of victim-aggressor networks in kindergartens.

This study investigated if and how children and teachers differ in their assessment of victim-aggressor relationships in kindergartens. Self-, peer, and teacher reports of victimization-aggression networks (who is victimized by whom) were investigated in 25 Swiss kindergartens with 402 5- to 7-years-old. It was examined whether child characteristics (sex and parent-reported internalizing and externalizing behavior) influence informant reports of victimization and/or aggression. Findings from statistical network models indicated higher concordance between self and peer reports than between one of these and teacher reports. Results further showed more agreement among informants on aggressors than on victims. Aggressors reported by self and peer reports were low on internalizing behavior, and aggressors reported by self and teacher reports were high on externalizing behavior; teacher-reported victims were also high on externalizing behavior. Internalizing behavior was unrelated to victimization. According to self and peer reports, boys as well as girls were victimized by boys and girls equally; teachers reported less cross-sex victimization than same-sex victimization. The different views of teachers and children on victim-aggressor relationships have implications for the identification of aggression in early childhood. Mutual sharing of information between children, their parents, peers, and teachers may contribute to signaling victims and aggressors in the early school years.

Like mother like daughter, like father like son? Intergenerational transmission of internalizing symptoms at early school age: a longitudinal study.

Despite the well-established link between parental depressive symptoms and children's internalizing symptoms, studies that divide transmission into gender-specific components remain scarce. Therefore, the present study focused on gender-specific associations between internalizing symptoms of parents and children over the course of early school age, a key stage where gender-specific roles are increasingly adopted. Participants were 272 children (49.6% girls) oversampled for internalizing symptoms. Parents completed questionnaires twice during early school age (mean age time 1 = 7.4 years; SD = 0.24; mean age time 2 = 8.5 years; SD = 0.28). Mothers and fathers separately reported on their own depressive symptoms and their child's internalizing symptoms. Latent multiple group analyses indicated gender-independent stability as well as gender-specific relations between parental and child outcomes. Maternal depressive symptoms were concurrently associated with symptoms of girls and boys, while paternal symptoms were concurrently associated only with symptoms of boys, but not of girls. Moreover, the associations between children and the parent of the same gender became more relevant over time, suggesting a growing identification with the same-gender model, particularly for fathers and boys. In regard to prospective effects, girls' internalizing symptoms at age 7 predicted paternal depressive symptoms 1 year later. In a rigorous longitudinal design, this study underscores the importance of gender specificity in the associations of internalizing symptoms between children and their mothers and fathers after controlling for symptom stability over time. The study also raises the interesting possibility that girls' internalizing symptoms elicit similar symptoms in their fathers.

IGNORING CHILDREN'S BEDTIME CRYING: THE POWER OF WESTERN-ORIENTED BELIEFS.

Ignoring children's bedtime crying (ICBC) is an issue that polarizes parents as well as pediatricians. While most studies have focused on the effectiveness of sleep interventions, no study has yet questioned which parents use ICBC. Parents often find children's sleep difficulties to be very challenging, but factors such as the influence of Western approaches to infant care, stress, and sensitivity have not been analyzed in terms of ICBC. A sample of 586 parents completed a questionnaire to investigate the relationships between parental factors and the method of ICBC. Data were analyzed using structural equation modeling. Latent variables were used to measure parental stress (Parental Stress Scale; J.O. Berry & W.H. Jones, 1995), sensitivity (Situation-Reaction-Questionnaire; Y. Hänggi, K. Schweinberger, N. Gugger, & M. Perrez, 2010), Western-oriented parental beliefs (Rigidity), and children's temperament (Parenting Stress Index; H. Tröster & R.R. Abidin). ICBC was used by 32.6% (n = 191) of parents in this study. Parents' Western-oriented beliefs predicted ICBC. Attitudes such as feeding a child on a time schedule and not carrying it out to prevent dependence were associated with letting the child cry to fall asleep. Low-sensitivity parents as well as parents of children with a difficult temperament used ICBC more frequently. Path analysis shows that parental stress did not predict ICBC. The results suggest that ICBC has become part of Western childrearing tradition.

Everything's Gonna be Alright! The Longitudinal Interplay among Social Support, Peer Victimization, and Depressive Symptoms.

Peer victimization has been identified as a risk factor for depressive symptoms. The current study investigated the longitudinal interplay among social support, peer victimization and depressive symptoms in early adolescence. We specifically investigated the promotive and protective role of parental and friendship support on the longitudinal relationship between victimization and depressive symptoms. A total of 960 Swiss adolescents (49% female, Mage 13.2 years) completed an electronic questionnaire four times, with 6-month intervals. Trivariate cross-lagged models with latent longitudinal moderations were computed. The analyses confirmed that peer victimization was positively associated with changes in depressive symptoms, and depressive symptoms were positively associated with changes in victimization. Furthermore, bidirectional longitudinal associations between both parental and friendship support and depressive symptoms were found, while neither parental nor friendship support was found to be longitudinally associated with peer victimization. Further, neither parental nor friendship support moderated the longitudinal relationship between victimization and depressive symptoms. Thus, the present results suggested that parental and friendship support were promotive factors for adolescents' well-being, while neither parental, nor friendship support buffered the effect of victimization on depressive symptoms, thereby yielding no evidence for their longitudinal protective effect.

The impact of peer victimization on later maladjustment: mediating and moderating effects of hostile and self-blaming attributions.

BACKGROUND: Evidence indicates that being a victim of bullying or peer aggression has negative short- and long-term consequences. In this study, we investigated the mediating and moderating role of two types of attributional mechanisms (hostile and self-blaming attributions) on children's maladjustment (externalizing and internalizing problems). METHODS: In total, 478 children participated in this longitudinal study from grade 5 to grade 7. Children, parents, and teachers repeatedly completed questionnaires. Peer victimization was assessed through peer reports (T1). Attributions were assessed through self-reports using hypothetical scenarios (T2). Parents and teachers reported on children's maladjustment (T1 and T3). RESULTS: Peer victimization predicted increases in externalizing and internalizing problems. Hostile attributions partially mediated the impact of victimization on increases in externalizing problems. Self-blame was not associated with peer victimization. However, for children with higher levels of self-blaming attributions, peer victimization was linked more strongly with increases in internalizing problems. CONCLUSIONS: Results imply that hostile attributions may operate as a potential mechanism through which negative experiences with peers lead to increases in children's aggressive and delinquent behavior, whereas self-blame exacerbates victimization's effects on internalizing problems.

Visually detected NREM Stage 2 sleep spindles in kindergarten children are associated with current and future emotional and behavioural characteristics.

Sleep electroencephalogram spindles are associated with efficient cortical-subcortical connectivity, and intellectual and learning abilities. In the present study, we assessed healthy preschoolers with a twofold aim: (i) to explore associations of non-rapid eye movement S2 spindles with emotional/behavioural characteristics cross-sectionally; and (ii) longitudinally. A total of 43 children who were 5 years old underwent objective sleep electroencephalogram monitoring in their homes. Emotional and behavioural dimensions were assessed by parents and teachers with the Strengths & Difficulties Questionnaire at baseline and at follow-up 1 year later. Non-rapid eye movement S2 spindles were visually scored and compared with Strengths & Difficulties Questionnaire dimensions. High non-rapid eye movement S2 spindle density was associated with less internalizing behaviour, more prosocial behaviour and a low total problem score. In girls, high non-rapid eye movement S2 spindle density was related to low hyperactivity, while in boys it was associated with less internalizing behaviour, more externalizing behaviour and more hyperactivity. Longitudinally, a higher number of non-rapid eye movement S2 spindles at 5 years old predicted fewer peer problems 12 months later. In kindergarten children, high non-rapid eye movement S2 spindle density is associated with observable current and future favourable emotional/behavioural patterns. However, gender differences were also found, as should be taken into account in future studies.

Is cyberbullying worse than traditional bullying? Examining the differential roles of medium, publicity, and anonymity for the perceived severity of bullying.

Cyberbullying, a modern form of bullying performed using electronic forms of contact (e.g., SMS, MMS, Facebook, YouTube), has been considered as being worse than traditional bullying in its consequences for the victim. This difference was mainly attributed to some specific aspect that are believed to distinguish cyberbullying from traditional bullying: an increased potential for a large audience, an increased potential for anonymous bullying, lower levels of direct feedback, decreased time and space limits, and lower levels of supervision. The present studies investigated the relative importance of medium (traditional vs. cyber), publicity (public vs. private), and bully's anonymity (anonymous vs. not anonymous) for the perceived severity of hypothetical bullying scenarios among a sample of Swiss seventh- and eight-graders (study 1: 49% female, mean age = 13.7; study 2: 49% female, mean age = 14.2). Participants ranked a set of hypothetical bullying scenarios from the most severe one to the least severe one. The scenarios were experimentally manipulated based on the aspect of medium and publicity (study 1), and medium and anonymity (study 2). Results showed that public scenarios were perceived as worse than private ones, and that anonymous scenarios were perceived as worse than not anonymous ones. Cyber scenarios generally were perceived as worse than traditional ones, although effect sizes were found to be small. These results suggest that the role of medium is secondary to the role of publicity and anonymity when it comes to evaluating bullying severity. Therefore, cyberbullying is not a priori perceived as worse than traditional bullying. Implications of the results for cyberbullying prevention and intervention are discussed.

Does body mass index in childhood predict restraint eating in early adolescence?

The aim of this study was (1) to examine whether childhood BMI is a significant predictor of restrained eating in preadolescents, (2) to investigate gender differences in restrained and emotional eating, and (3) to determine whether emotional problems, and body esteem were related to eating problems of preadolescents. In this longitudinal study with two measurement points, data from 428 children (50% female) were used. At time 1 (t1) children were on average 5.9years old. BMI was assessed using objective measures. At time 2 (t2) participants were 12years old. The adolescents and their parents completed questionnaires assessing restrained and emotional eating, body esteem, emotional problems, and BMI. Multiple regression analysis showed that restrained eating was significantly predicted by t1 BMI, by change in BMI between t1 and t2, and t2 body esteem. Emotional eating was, as expected, not predicted by t1 BMI, but associated with t2 body esteem and t2 emotional problems. Gender was not a significant predictor. The stability of BMI between childhood and preadolescence and its ability to predict restrained eating suggests that it is important to start prevention of overweight, body dissatisfaction and disordered eating at an early age.

Moral reasoning and emotion attributions of adolescent bullies, victims, and bully-victims.

This study investigated different facets of moral development in bullies, victims, and bully-victims among Swiss adolescents. Extending previous research, we focused on both bullying and victimization in relation to adolescents' morally disengaged and morally responsible reasoning as well as moral emotion attributions. A total of 516 adolescents aged 12-18 (57% females) reported the frequency of involvement in bullying and victimization. Participants were categorized as bullies (14.3%), bully-victims (3.9%), and victims (9.7%). Moral judgment, moral justifications, and emotion attributions to a hypothetical perpetrator of a moral transgression (relational aggression) were assessed. Bullies showed more morally disengaged reasoning than non-involved students. Bully-victims more frequently indicated that violating moral rules is right. Victims produced more victim-oriented justifications (i.e., more empathy) but fewer moral rules. Among victims, the frequency of morally responsible justifications decreased and the frequency of deviant rules increased with age. The findings are discussed from an integrative moral developmental perspective.

Emotional symptoms from kindergarten to middle childhood: associations with self- and other-oriented social skills.

The study investigated the interactive impact of different dimensions of social skills on children's emotional symptoms. We differentiate between self-oriented social skills which focus on considering own goals and needs in social interactions (assertiveness, social participation) and other-oriented social skills which focus on considering other's goals and needs (pro-social and cooperative behavior). 167 children participated in the study at the ages of 5, 6, and 9 years. A multi-informant approach (parents, teacher, and child) was employed to assess children's psychopathology. Teachers rated children's social skills. The study demonstrated the importance of deficits in self-oriented social skills for the development of emotional symptoms. Low levels of assertiveness predicted later emotional symptoms. In children with low levels of pro-social behavior, high assertiveness protected from emotional problems. In contrast, high levels of pro-social behavior emerged as a risk factor for later emotional symptoms, especially when is goes along with low levels of social participation.

Tempted to join in or not? Moral temptation and self-reported behaviour in bullying situations.

We investigate the relationship between adolescents' construction of a transgression relating to a hypothetical temptation and bystander behaviour and bullying (offline and online). A total of 331 Swiss eighth graders completed an electronic questionnaire on bystanding, bullying, moral disengagement, and empathy. Moral functioning was assessed in a hypothetical scenario, using different moral judgements (deontic and self-judgement, judging the transgression; paper-and-pencil measure). Cluster analyses were used to identify patterns of moral functioning. For the open situation (deontic and self-judgement), happy transgressors, happy moralists, ashamed moralists, and indifferent moralists were differentiated, and for the transgression (accomplished deed) moralists and happy opportunists. The analyses yielded significant differences between the different cluster groups. Happy transgressors (open situation) reported higher levels of assisting the bullying than unconcerned moralists. Happy transgressors also reported lower levels of helping than ashamed and happy moralists. Opportunists (accomplished deed) reported higher levels of assisting the bullying, offline bullying, and lower levels of helping the victim. The multivariate GEE analyses showed that happy transgressors reported higher levels of assisting the bully and online bullying than the moralist groups (open situation). The study shows that adolescents who construct a favourable interpretation of yielding to temptation in a hypothetical scenario displayed higher levels of both assisting the bully and online bullying, emphasizing the need for incorporating targeted moral education in bullying prevention.

Children's peer victimization, empathy, and emotional symptoms.

This study investigated the concurrent and longitudinal relations among children's peer victimization, empathy, and emotional symptoms. The sample consisted of 175 children (85 girls, mean age = 6.1 years) recruited from kindergartens in Switzerland and followed for 1 year (Time 2). Parents and teachers reported on the children's emotional symptoms, empathy, and victimization. Children reported their empathy and victimization experiences. Peer victimization was a predictor of emotional symptoms at Time 1; this association was stronger for children with average or high levels of empathy. Increases in peer victimization predicted increases in boys' emotional symptoms, and increases in victimization were related to decreases in empathy. The results emphasize the role of negative peer relations and children's social-emotional information processing for the development of emotional symptoms.

Immigrant children's peer acceptance and victimization in kindergarten: the role of local language competence.

The study investigates peer acceptance and victimization of immigrant and Swiss children in kindergarten classes. Our first aim is to compare peer acceptance and victimization of Swiss and immigrant children. Secondly, we explore the role of their local language competences (LLCs). The sample was drawn from kindergartens in communities in the German-speaking part of Switzerland. A representative sample of 568 boys and 522 girls (mean age 5.8 years) took part in the research. Teachers completed questionnaires on children's victimization, bullying, and LLC. The nationality background of parents was indicated by teachers and parents. To assess peer acceptance, a peer nomination method was used. Immigrant children showed less acceptance by peers and were more often victimized than their Swiss peers. There was a significant interaction effect for LLC and national background of mothers, showing that LLC was positively associated with peer acceptance for children of an immigrant background but not for Swiss children. Furthermore, peer acceptance mediated the effect of national background of mothers on victimization. Results are discussed in terms of the need to improve immigrant children's LLC.

Dementia caregiving in spousal relationships: a dyadic perspective.

OBJECTIVES: The number of couples facing a dementia diagnosis for one partner of the spousal dyad increases. Spousal caregiving can be a highly stressful experience associated with negative caregiver outcomes such as depression and poorer immune function. However, surprisingly little is known about how the illness and the required care effects patient's well-being and relational changes experienced by afflicted couples. The aim of this study was to provide a literature review on how the dyadic perspective is taken into account and on how dementia effects both parts of the dyad. METHODS: In order to outline findings about individual and dyadic well-being of affected couples, we conducted a literature search to review the three types of studies. First, studies focusing on one partner's perspective, usually the perspective of the caregiver; second, studies including the caregiver's and partially the care receiver's view; third, studies directly referring to both partners' perspectives. RESULTS: The majority of studies neglect the individual with dementia by exclusively assessing caregiver variables or only indirectly including patients' characteristics. Very few studies embrace dyadic and relational variables to execute how both partners experience the illness, spousal caregiving, and changes in the relationship. Despite the arguable validity of self reports of individuals with dementia, some studies demonstrated the usefulness of including both partners' perspectives. DISCUSSION: Results indicate the urgent need of integrating the perspective of the individual with dementia to improve the understanding of the effects of dementia caregiving. Directly assessing the dyadic perspective of affected couples provides essential information for interventions.

Electroencephalographic sleep profiles and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA)-activity in kindergarten children: early indication of poor sleep quality associated with increased cortisol secretion.

OBJECTIVES: In children, objective data carried out from sleep EEG monitoring are scarce. Furthermore, results associating the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA)-activity with sleep EEG measurements in children are missing. Therefore, our study aimed to investigate in preschool-children the association between sleep patterns and endocrine activity. Furthermore, children's behavioral/emotional difficulties and competences were assessed in order to correlate psychological strain with sleep measures. PARTICIPANTS AND METHODS: Sixty-seven kindergarten children (35 boys and 32 girls) aged 5.34 underwent EEG-monitoring for one night. For baseline HPA-activity assessment, saliva samples were collected immediately after awakening, whereas saliva samples before, while and after a psychological challenge were used to assess the HPA-activity under stress conditions. RESULTS: Compared to girls, boys showed significantly more REM sleep time. After cluster analysis, children labeled as 'poor' sleepers (n=27; 40,30%) showed significantly increased morning cortisol values, as compared to 'good' sleepers (n=22; 32,83%). Furthermore, increased cortisol AUC values under stress conditions were significantly associated with an elevated number of awakenings after sleep onset, and more sleep time in stages 1 and 2. In addition, an increased sleep efficiency was significantly correlated with self-reported emotional/behavioral difficulties, i.e. with low degrees of impulsivity (r=-.31; p<.05) and lower degrees of social inhibition and peer victimiziation (r=-.26, p<.05). CONCLUSIONS: Our results underlined that already in preschool years, associations between objectively examined unfavorable sleep patterns, increased HPA-system activity and more difficult behavioral and psychosocial dimensions may be observed.

Visually detected non-rapid eye movement stage 2 sleep spindle density at age five years predicted prosocial behavior positively and hyperactivity scores negatively at age nine years.

OBJECTIVE: A higher density of sleep electroencephalogram (EEG) spindles has been cross-sectionally associated with more efficient cortical-subcortical connectivity, superior intellectual and learning abilities, and healthier emotional and behavioral traits. In the present study, we explored to what extent sleep spindle density (SSD) at age five years could predict emotional and behavioral traits at six and nine years. METHODS: A total of 19 healthy preschoolers at age five years underwent in-home sleep EEG recordings for visual scoring of non-rapid eye movement stage 2 (NREM-S2) sleep spindles, and SSD in NREM-S2 was calculated. Parents and teachers rated children's emotional and behavioral characteristics at ages five, six, and nine years. RESULTS: Higher SSD at five years predicted higher prosocial behavior scores at nine years, as rated by parents and teachers, and lower hyperactivity scores as rated by teachers. Multiple regression analyses showed that SSD predicted prosocial behavior and hyperactivity independently of earlier prosocial behavior or hyperactivity. CONCLUSION: The pattern of results suggests that a higher SSD at five years is predictive of higher scores for positive emotional and behavioral characteristics four years later. Therefore, spindle density indices might be acknowledged as an indicator not only of cognitive but also of emotional-behavioral development in children.

Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) activity in kindergarten children: importance of gender and associations with behavioral/emotional difficulties.

The current cross-sectional study investigated basal and stress-challenged hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) system function in 102 five-year old kindergarten children (59 boys, 43 girls) who had been assessed by a comprehensive psychological and behavioral test battery. Baseline HPA system activity was significantly increased in girls when compared to boys (p<0.001). Furthermore, basal HPA system activity predicted a high hormonal release during stress with--again--girls showing higher hormonal responses than boys (p<0.01). Importantly, increased HPA system activity (baseline and stress-challenged) was significantly associated with hyperactivity/impulsivity and emotional problems in boys and with positive emotions in girls (p<0.05). These results suggest an occurrence of neurobiological alterations early in development. The observed neurobiological changes are gender specific already at the age of 5 years. Prospective long-term follow up of the identified subjects with HPA axis alterations will clarify if these markers are predictive for the onset of psychiatric disorders.

An Exploration of Jamaican Mothers' Perceptions of Closeness and Intimacy in the Mother-Child Relationship during Middle Childhood.

Research on Jamaican mother-child relationships has had a limited focus on authoritarian parenting styles and selected discipline practices such as corporal punishment. This study examined Jamaican mothers' experiences of closeness and connectedness with their children to provide a holistic perspective on Jamaican-parent-child relationships. Thirty mothers (17 middle class and 13 lower class) living in Kingston and St. Andrew, Jamaica, participated in a 1-h to 1.5-h semi-structured, open-ended interview regarding their 8- to 12-year-old children. Thematic analyses indicated that mothers experienced closeness through intimate interactions (e.g., shared projects, shared physical affection, mutuality, and child self-disclosure) and parent-child nurturance. Both mothers and children were active in creating contexts for closeness. Mothers also reported experiences that temporarily damaged their connection with their children. The findings suggest that the construct of parent-child intimacy may be useful in teasing out the psychological meanings and interpersonal processes of parent-child relatedness in cultural research.