The role of cognitive reserve in cognitive aging: what we can learn from Parkinson's disease.

Parkinson's disease (PD) typically occurs in elderly people and some degree of cognitive impairment is usually present. Cognitive reserve (CR) theory was proposed to explain the discrepancy between the degree of brain pathologies and clinical manifestations. We administered a comprehensive neuropsychological battery to 35 non-demented participants affected by PD. All participants underwent also the Cognitive Reserve Index questionnaire and the Brief Intelligence Test as proxies for CR. Relationships between CR and cognitive performance were investigated by linear regression analyses, adjusting for significant confounding factors. At linear regression analyses, higher CR scores were independently associated with a better performance on Word Fluency (p ≤ 0.04) and Digit Span (backward) (p ≤ 0.02); no associations were observed between CR and other cognitive tests. Our data provide empirical support to the relation between CR and cognitive impairment in PD. In particular, this study suggests that CR may have greater effects on the cognitive areas mostly affected in PD as executive functions.

Association of Pisa Syndrome With Mortality in Patients With Parkinson's Disease.

OBJECTIVES: In Parkinson's disease, Pisa syndrom (PS) has been associated with disease stage and severity, combined treatment with levodopa and dopamine agonists, gait disorders, and comorbidities. Some forms of PS are potentially reversible; nevertheless, little is known about the impact of this syndrome on survival. DESIGN: Prospective study with a median follow-up of 2 years. SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: Patients with Parkinson's disease, age 65 years and older (N = 189), attending a geriatric day hospital. MEASUREMENTS: According to established criteria, PS was diagnosed in the presence of at least 10° lateral flexion of the trunk reducible by passive mobilization or supine positioning. Cox regression was adopted to assess the association of PS with all-cause mortality. RESULTS: PS was diagnosed in 40 patients (21%); over the follow-up, 21 (11%) subjects died. In Cox regression, PS was associated with higher mortality [hazard ratio (HR) 4.10; 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.36-12.38], after adjusting; other variables associated with mortality were age (HR = 1.19, 95% CI = 1.08-1.32), beta blockers (HR = 4.35, 95% CI = 1.23-15.39), and albumin levels (HR = 0.05, 95% CI = 0.01-0.33). The association of PS with mortality remained significant also after adjusting for variables associated with this syndrome (HR = 4.04, 95% CI = 1.33-12.25). CONCLUSIONS/IMPLICATIONS: PS represents a risk factor for earlier mortality in Parkinson's disease; further studies are needed to ascertain the underlying causes and whether treatment of this condition might improve survival.

Prevalence of Impulsive-Compulsive Symptoms in Elderly Parkinson's Disease Patients: A Case-Control Study.

BACKGROUND: Impulse-control disorders (ICDs) are frequently described in patients with Parkinson's disease (PD), particularly among those treated with dopaminergic medications, but data on the prevalence of ICDs in elderly populations are lacking. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to estimate the prevalence of ICDs by using an Italian validation of the Questionnaire for Impulsive-Compulsive Disorders in Parkinson's Disease (QUIP) and to identify associated sociodemographic and clinical factors in a sample of elderly PD patients and in a control group of similarly aged healthy volunteers. METHODS: Using the United Kingdom Parkinson's Disease Society Brain Bank diagnostic criteria, we included 115 consecutive PD and 105 healthy controls. They were recruited from June 2014 to December 2015. All participants completed the self-administered QUIP-Anytime for assessment of ICDs occurring any time during the course of PD. RESULTS: Mean ± SD age was 75.7 ± 7.0 years in the PD patients and 76.1 ± 7.0 years in the control group. The mean disease duration was 6.8 years (range, 1-26 years). Among the PD patients, 44.7% (n = 51) had at least 1 ICD or related disorder compared to 25.2% (n = 26) in the control group (between-group difference: P = .003). Hypersexuality and compulsive shopping were significantly more common in the PD group than in the control group (P < .05). The prevalence of other compulsive behaviors was 42.5% in the PD group and 38.9% in the control group (P = NS). The Italian version of the QUIP-Anytime showed high test-retest reliability (κ > 0.70 for all items). CONCLUSIONS: Our data confirm a high prevalence of ICD symptoms in elderly PD patients, approximately twice that seen in the general population.

Use of ACE-inhibitors and falls in patients with Parkinson's disease.

Falls represent a major concern in patients with Parkinson's disease (PD); however, currently acknowledged treatments for PD are not effective in reducing the risk of falling. The aim was to assess the association of use of ACE-inhibitors (ACEIs) and angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) with falls among patients with PD. We analysed data of 194 elderly with PD attending a geriatric Day Hospital. Self-reported history of falls that occurred over the last year, as well as use of drugs, including ACEIs and angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs) were recorded. The association of the occurrence of any falls with use of ACEIs, and ARBs was assessed by logistic regression analysis. The association between the number of falls and use of ACEIs, and ARBs was assessed according to Poisson regression. In logistic regression, after adjusting for potential confounders, use of ACEIs was associated with a reduced probability of falling over the last year (OR=0.15, 95% CI=0.03-0.81; P=0.028). This association did not vary with blood pressure levels (P for the interaction term=0.528). Also, using Poisson regression, use of ACEIs predicted a reduced number of falls among participants who fell (PR=0.31; 95% CI=0.10-0.94; P=0.039). No association was found between use of ARBs and falls. Our results indicate that use of ACEIs might be independently associated with reduced probability, and a reduced number of falls among patients with PD. Dedicated studies are needed to define the single agents and dosages that might most effectively reduce the risk of falling in clinical practice.

Association of metabolic syndrome with falls in patients with Parkinson's disease.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Falls are a major threat for patients with Parkinson's disease, as they are associated with higher risk of morbidity, loss of functional ability, institutionalization, and mortality. Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is associated with poorer physical performance in middle age, but its impact in the older and frailer subjects is unclear. The present study aimed at assessing the association of MetS with falls in patients with Parkinson's disease. METHODS: We analyzed data of 194 elderly with Parkinson's disease attending a geriatric Day Hospital. History of falls that occurred over the last year, as well as and the number of falls, were recorded. Metabolic syndrome was diagnosed according to the National Cholesterol Education Program's ATP-III criteria. RESULTS: Falls were reported by 91 participants (47%). Logistic regression analysis showed that MetS was associated with reduced occurrence of falls (OR = .26; 95% CI = .10-.69; P = .007). Also, among participants who fell, Poisson regression indicated that MetS predicted a reduced number of falls (IRR = .43; 95% CI = .20-.89; P = .024). CONCLUSIONS: In our population MetS was associated with reduced probability of falls; among subjects who fell, MetS was associated with a reduced number of falls. Dedicated studies are needed to better understand the subsystems involved, as well as the therapeutic implications of such an association.