FXR1 regulation of parvalbumin interneurons in the prefrontal cortex is critical for schizophrenia-like behaviors.

Parvalbumin interneurons (PVIs) are affected in many psychiatric disorders including schizophrenia (SCZ), however the mechanism remains unclear. FXR1, a high confident risk gene for SCZ, is indispensable but its role in the brain is largely unknown. We show that deleting FXR1 from PVIs of medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) leads to reduced PVI excitability, impaired mPFC gamma oscillation, and SCZ-like behaviors. PVI-specific translational profiling reveals that FXR1 regulates the expression of Cacna1h/Cav3.2 a T-type calcium channel implicated in autism and epilepsy. Inhibition of Cav3.2 in PVIs of mPFC phenocopies whereas elevation of Cav3.2 in PVIs of mPFC rescues behavioral deficits resulted from FXR1 deficiency. Stimulation of PVIs using a gamma oscillation-enhancing light flicker rescues behavioral abnormalities caused by FXR1 deficiency in PVIs. This work unveils the function of a newly identified SCZ risk gene in SCZ-relevant neurons and identifies a therapeutic target and a potential noninvasive treatment for psychiatric disorders.

A Characterization of Maximally Entangled Two-Qubit States.

As already known by Rana's result, all eigenvalues of any partial-transposed bipartite state fall within the closed interval [-12,1]. In this note, we study a family of bipartite quantum states where the minimal eigenvalues of partial-transposed states are -12. For a two-qubit system, we find that the minimal eigenvalue of its partial-transposed state is -12 if and only if such a two-qubit state is maximally entangled. However this result does not hold in general for a two-qudit system when the dimensions of the underlying space are larger than two.

Dense Packing of Acetylene in a Stable and Low-Cost Metal-Organic Framework for Efficient C2 H2 /CO2 Separation.

Porous materials for C2 H2 /CO2 separation mostly suffer from high regeneration energy, poor stability, or high cost that largely dampen their industrial implementation. A desired adsorbent should have an optimal balance between excellent separation performance, high stability, and low cost. We herein report a stable, low-cost, and easily scaled-up aluminum MOF (CAU-10-H) for highly efficient C2 H2 /CO2 separation. The suitable pore confinement in CAU-10-H can not only provide multipoint binding interactions with C2 H2 but also enable the dense packing of C2 H2 inside the pores. This material exhibits one of the highest C2 H2 storage densities of 392 g L-1 and highly selective adsorption of C2 H2 over CO2 at ambient conditions, achieved by a low C2 H2 adsorption enthalpy (27 kJ mol-1 ). Breakthrough experiments confirm its exceptional separation performance for C2 H2 /CO2 mixtures, affording both large C2 H2 uptake of 3.3 mmol g-1 and high separation factor of 3.4. CAU-10-H achieves the benchmark balance between separation performance, stability, and cost for C2 H2 /CO2 separation.

Medial Prefrontal Cortex-Pontine Nuclei Projections Modulate Suboptimal Cue-Induced Associative Motor Learning.

Diverse and powerful mechanisms have evolved to enable organisms to modulate learning and memory under a variety of survival conditions. Cumulative evidence has shown that the prefrontal cortex (PFC) is closely involved in many higher-order cognitive functions. However, when and how the medial PFC (mPFC) modulates associative motor learning remains largely unknown. Here, we show that delay eyeblink conditioning (DEC) with the weak conditioned stimulus (wCS) but not the strong CS (sCS) elicited a significant increase in the levels of c-Fos expression in caudal mPFC. Both optogenetic inhibition and activation of the bilateral caudal mPFC, or its axon terminals at the pontine nucleus (PN) contralateral to the training eye, significantly impaired the acquisition, recent and remote retrieval of DEC with the wCS but not the sCS. However, direct optogenetic activation of the contralateral PN had no significant effect on the acquisition, recent and remote retrieval of DEC. These results are of great importance in understanding the elusive role of the mPFC and its projection to PN in subserving the associative motor learning under suboptimal learning cue.

Dynamic modelling on the confined crystallization of mono-sized cubic particles under mechanical vibration.

The dynamic crystallization of cubic granular particles under three-dimensional mechanical vibration is numerically investigated by the discrete element method. The effects of operational conditions (vibration, container shape and system size) and particle properties (gravity and friction) on the formation of crystals and defects are discussed. The results show that the formation and growth of clusters with face-to-face aligned cubic particles can be easily realized under vibrations. Especially, a single crystal with both translational and orientational ordering can be reproduced in a rectangular container under appropriate vibrations. It is also found that the gravitational effect is beneficial for the ordering of a packing; the ordering of frictional particles can be improved significantly with an enlarged gravitational acceleration. The flat walls of a rectangular container facilitate the formation of orderly layered structures. The curved walls of a cylindrical container contribute to the formation of ring-like structures, whereas they also cause distortions and defects in the packing centers. Finally, it is shown that the crystallization of inelastic particles is basically accomplished by the pursuit of a better mechanical stability of the system, with decreasing kinetic and potential energies.

Amniotic Mesenchymal Stem Cells Decrease Aß Deposition and Improve Memory in APP/PS1 Transgenic Mice.

Transplantation of human amniotic mesenchymal stem cells (hAM-MSCs) seems to be a promising strategy for the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders, including Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, the clinical therapeutic effects of hAM-MSCs and their mechanisms of action in AD remain to be determined. Here, we used amyloid precursor protein (APP) and presenilin1 (PS1) double-transgenic mice to evaluate the effects of hAM-MSC transplantation on AD-related neuropathology and cognitive dysfunction. We found that hAM-MSC transplantation into the hippocampus dramatically reduced amyloid-ß peptide (Aß) deposition and rescued spatial learning and memory deficits in APP/PS1 mice. Interestingly, these effects were associated with increasing in Aß-degrading factors, elevations in activated microglia, and the modulation of neuroinflammation. Furthermore, enhanced hippocampal neurogenesis in the subgranular zone (SGZ) of the dentate gyrus (DG) and enhanced synaptic plasticity following hAM-MSC treatment could be another important factor in reversing the cognitive decline in APP/PS1 mice. Instead, the mechanism underlying the improved cognition apparently involves a robust increase in hippocampal synaptic density and neurogenesis that is mediated by brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). In conclusion, our data suggest that hAM-MSCs may be a new and effective therapy for the treatment of AD.

Continuous spike-waves during slow-wave sleep in a mouse model of focal cortical dysplasia.

OBJECTIVE: To examine if mice with focal cortical dysplasia (FCD) develop spontaneous epileptic seizures and, if so, determine the key electroencephalography (EEG) features. METHODS: Unilateral single freeze lesions to the S1 region (SFLS1R) were made in postnatal day 0-1 pups to induce a neocortical microgyrus in the right cortical hemisphere. Continuous 24-h recordings with intracranial EEG electrodes and behavioral tests were performed in adult SFLS1R and sham-control mice to assess neurologic status. RESULTS: A high percentage of adult SFLS1R animals (89%, 40/45) exhibited at least one or more spontaneous nonconvulsive seizure events over the course of 24 h. Of these animals, 60% (27/45) presented with a chronic seizure state that was persistent throughout the recording session, consisting of bursts of rhythmic high-amplitude spike-wave activities and primarily occurring during periods of slow-wave sleep. In comparison, none of the control, age-matched, mice (0/12) developed seizures. The epileptic discharge pattern closely resembled a pattern of continuous spike-waves during slow-wave sleep (CSWS) of the human syndrome described as an electrical status epilepticus during slow-wave sleep (ESES). Key findings in the SFLS1R model indicated that the observed CSWS (1) were more prevalent in female (18/23) versus male (9/22, p < 0.05), (2) were strongest in the right S1 region although generalized to other brain regions, (3) were associated with significant cognitive and behavioral deficits, (4) were temporarily alleviated by ethosuximide treatment or optogenetic activation of cortical γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA)ergic neurons, and (5) theta and alpha band rhythms may play a key role in the generalization of spike-wave activities. SIGNIFICANCE: This is the first report of an in vivo animal FCD model that induces chronic spontaneous electrographic brain seizures. Further characterization of the abnormal oscillations in this mouse model may lead to a better understanding of the mechanisms of CSWS/ESES.

Thorough GABAergic innervation of the entire axon initial segment revealed by an optogenetic 'laserspritzer'.

GABAergic terminals of chandelier cells exclusively innervate the axon initial segment (AIS) of excitatory neurons. Although the anatomy of these synapses has been well-studied in several brain areas, relatively little is known about their physiological properties. Using vesicular γ-aminobutyric acid transporter-channelrhodopsin 2-enhanced yellow fluorescence protein (VGAT-ChR2-YFP)-expressing mice and a novel fibreoptic 'laserspritzer' approach that we developed, we investigated the physiological properties of axo-axonic synapses (AASs) in brain slices from the piriform cortex (PC) of mice. AASs were in close proximity to voltage-gated Na(+) (NaV) channels located at the AIS. AASs were selectively activated by a 5 µm laserspritzer placed in close proximity to the AIS. Under a minimal laser stimulation condition and using whole-cell somatic voltage-clamp recordings, the amplitudes and kinetics of IPSCs mediated by AASs were similar to those mediated by perisomatic inhibitions. Results were further validated with channelrhodopsin 2-assisted circuit mapping (CRACM) of the entire inhibitory inputs map. For the first time, we revealed that the laserspritzer-induced AAS-IPSCs persisted in the presence of TTX and TEA but not 4-AP. Next, using gramicidin-based perforated patch recordings, we found that the GABA reversal potential (EGABA) was -73.6 ± 1.2 mV when induced at the AIS and -72.8 ± 1.1 mV when induced at the perisomatic site. Our anatomical and physiological results lead to the novel conclusions that: (1) AASs innervate the entire length of the AIS, as opposed to forming a highly concentrated cartridge, (2) AAS inhibition suppresses action potentials and epileptiform activity more robustly than perisomatic inhibitions, and (3) AAS activation alone can be sufficient to inhibit action potential generation and epileptiform activities in vitro.

Mapping risk of plague in Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, China.

BACKGROUND: Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau of China is known to be the plague endemic region where marmot (Marmota himalayana) is the primary host. Human plague cases are relatively low incidence but high mortality, which presents unique surveillance and public health challenges, because early detection through surveillance may not always be feasible and infrequent clinical cases may be misdiagnosed. METHODS: Based on plague surveillance data and environmental variables, Maxent was applied to model the presence probability of plague host. 75% occurrence points were randomly selected for training model, and the rest 25% points were used for model test and validation. Maxent model performance was measured as test gain and test AUC. The optimal probability cut-off value was chosen by maximizing training sensitivity and specificity simultaneously. RESULTS: We used field surveillance data in an ecological niche modeling (ENM) framework to depict spatial distribution of natural foci of plague in Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. Most human-inhabited areas at risk of exposure to enzootic plague are distributed in the east and south of the Plateau. Elevation, temperature of land surface and normalized difference vegetation index play a large part in determining the distribution of the enzootic plague. CONCLUSIONS: This study provided a more detailed view of spatial pattern of enzootic plague and human-inhabited areas at risk of plague. The maps could help public health authorities decide where to perform plague surveillance and take preventive measures in Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau.

A key mechanism underlying sensory experience-dependent maturation of neocortical GABAergic circuits in vivo.

Mechanisms underlying experience-dependent refinement of cortical connections, especially GABAergic inhibitory circuits, are unknown. By using a line of mutant mice that lack activity-dependent BDNF expression (bdnf-KIV), we show that experience regulation of cortical GABAergic network is mediated by activity-driven BDNF expression. Levels of endogenous BDNF protein in the barrel cortex are strongly regulated by sensory inputs from whiskers. There is a severe alteration of excitation and inhibition balance in the barrel cortex of bdnf-KIV mice as a result of reduced inhibitory but not excitatory conductance. Within the inhibitory circuits, the mutant barrel cortex exhibits significantly reduced levels of GABA release only from the parvalbumin-expressing fast-spiking (FS) interneurons, but not other interneuron subtypes. Postnatal deprivation of sensory inputs markedly decreased perisomatic inhibition selectively from FS cells in wild-type but not bdnf-KIV mice. These results suggest that postnatal experience, through activity-driven BDNF expression, controls cortical development by regulating FS cell-mediated perisomatic inhibition in vivo.

Lithium-ion battery state of health and failure analysis with mixture weibull and equivalent circuit model.

Existing methods for interpreting Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy data involve various models, which face significant challenges in parameterization and physical interpretation and fail to comprehensively reflect the electrochemical behavior within batteries. To address these issues, this study proposes a Temperature-Controlled Second-Order R-CPE Equivalent Circuit Model to capture the non-ideal capacitive characteristics of electrode surfaces. Additionally, the study employs a Copula based Joint Mixture Weibull Model and multi-output Gaussian Process Regression to enhance the precision in capturing the distribution of battery electrochemical parameters and predict SoH curves. Experimental validation shows that the model used in this article has an average RMSE error of 8.5%, and the prediction of the SoH curve after the 100th cycle can achieve an average RMSE error of 9.2%. These findings provide insightful implications for understanding the electrochemical complexities and parameter interdependencies in the battery aging process, offering a robust framework for future research in battery diagnostics.

Adaptive Intermediate Class-Wise Distribution Alignment: A Universal Domain Adaptation and Generalization Method for Machine Fault Diagnosis.

Many transfer learning methods have been proposed to implement fault transfer diagnosis, and their loss functions are usually composed of task-related losses, distribution distance losses, and correlation regularization losses. The intrinsic parameters and trade-off parameters between losses, however, need to be tuned according to the specific diagnosis tasks; thus, the generalization abilities of these methods in multiple tasks are limited. Besides, the alignment goal of most domain adaptation (DA) mechanisms dynamically changes during the training process, which will result in loss oscillation, slow convergence and poor robustness. To overcome the above-mentioned issues, a novel and simple transfer learning diagnosis method named adaptive intermediate class-wise distribution alignment (AICDA) model is proposed, and it is established via the proposed AICDA mechanism, dynamic intermediate alignment (DIA) adaptive layer and AdaSoftmax loss. The AICDA mechanism develops an adaptive intermediate distribution as the alignment goal of multiple source domains and target domains, and it can simultaneously align the global and class-wise distributions of these domains. The DIA layer is designed to adaptively achieve domain confusion without the distribution distance loss and the correlation regularization loss. Meanwhile, to ensure the classification performance of the AICDA mechanism, AdaSoftmax loss is proposed for boosting the separability of Softmax loss. Finally, in order to evaluate the effectiveness and universality of the AICDA diagnosis model to the most degree, various multisource mixed fault transfer diagnosis tasks of wind turbine planetary gearboxes, including DA and domain generalization (DG), are implemented, and the experimental results indicate that our proposed AICDA model has a higher diagnosis accuracy and a stronger generalization ability than other state-of-the-art transfer learning methods.

A prefrontal motor circuit initiates persistent movement.

Persistence reinforces continuous action, which benefits animals in many aspects. Diverse information may trigger animals to start a persistent movement. However, it is unclear how the brain decides to persist with current actions by selecting specific information. Using single-unit extracellular recordings and opto-tagging in awake mice, we demonstrated that a group of dorsal mPFC (dmPFC) motor cortex projecting (MP) neurons initiate a persistent movement selectively encoding contextual information rather than natural valence. Inactivation of dmPFC MP neurons impairs the initiation and reduces neuronal activity in the insular and motor cortex. Finally, a computational model suggests that a successive sensory stimulus acts as an input signal for the dmPFC MP neurons to initiate a persistent movement. These results reveal a neural initiation mechanism on the persistent movement.

A prefrontal motor circuit initiates persistent movement.

Persistence reinforces continuous action, which benefits animals in many aspects. Diverse external or internal signals may trigger animals to start a persistent movement. However, it is unclear how the brain decides to persist with current actions by selecting specific information. Using single-unit extracellular recordings and opto-tagging in awake mice, we demonstrated that a group of dorsal mPFC (dmPFC) motor cortex projecting (MP) neurons initiate a persistent movement by selectively encoding contextual information rather than natural valence. Inactivation of dmPFC MP neurons impairs the initiation and reduces neuronal activity in the insular and motor cortex. After the persistent movement is initiated, the dmPFC MP neurons are not required to maintain it. Finally, a computational model suggests that a successive sensory stimulus acts as an input signal for the dmPFC MP neurons to initiate a persistent movement. These results reveal a neural initiation mechanism on the persistent movement.

Digestive fluid components affect speciation and bioaccessibility and the subsequent exposure risk of soil chromium from stomach to intestinal phase in in-vitro gastrointestinal digestion.

The simulated in-vitro gastrointestinal method provides a simple way to evaluate the health risk of human body exposed to soil contaminants. Several in-vitro methods have been successfully established for soil As, Pb, and Cd. However, the method development for soil Cr failed up to now, which could be resulted from alteration in the species of Cr (e.g., Cr(VI)/Cr(III)) caused by the gastrointestinal digestion components, ultimately affecting the accessibility of Cr. This study explored the transformation and bioaccessibility of Cr in two Cr-contaminated soils during the physiologically based extraction test. The water-soluble and exchangeable Cr in soil was dissolved in gastrointestinal tract, accompanied with reduction of Cr(VI) into Cr(III), and the reduction occurred after the chemical extraction in two soils rather than during the extraction. Pepsin and organic acids in gastric phase could reduce Cr(VI) into Cr(III) and reduction efficiency were 20.4%- 53.0%, while in intestinal phase, pancreatin and bile salt had little effect on the Cr(VI) reduction, instead, more Cr(VI) was released from soil. In the gastric solution, Cr(VI) was mainly present as HCrO4- and Cr(III) as free Cr3+ ion. In the intestinal phase, Cr(VI) mainly occurred as CrO42- and Cr(III) as Cr(OH)3 (aq). Cr in the soil solid phase was dominated as the precipitates of Cr-Fe oxide, which was hardly extracted. Bioaccessibility of Cr in gastric phase increased as extraction duration increased and decreased in the intestinal phase, the contrary trend was observed for the hazard quotient of Cr in two phases due to Cr(VI)/Cr(III) transformation. This study indicates that the gastrointestinal components could influence the Cr transformation and subsequently affect the Cr bioaccessibility, which would help for a successful establishment of in vitro determination method for soil Cr bioaccessibility.

Compendium of 5810 genomes of sheep and goat gut microbiomes provides new insights into the glycan and mucin utilization.

BACKGROUND: Ruminant gut microbiota are critical in ecological adaptation, evolution, and nutrition utilization because it regulates energy metabolism, promotes nutrient absorption, and improves immune function. To study the functional roles of key gut microbiota in sheep and goats, it is essential to construct reference microbial gene catalogs and high-quality microbial genomes database. RESULTS: A total of 320 fecal samples were collected from 21 different sheep and goat breeds, originating from 32 distinct farms. Metagenomic deep sequencing and binning assembly were utilized to construct a comprehensive microbial genome information database for the gut microbiota. We successfully generated the largest reference gene catalogs for gut microbiota in sheep and goats, containing over 162 million and 82 million nonredundant predicted genes, respectively, with 49 million shared nonredundant predicted genes and 1138 shared species. We found that the rearing environment has a greater impact on microbial composition and function than the host's species effect. Through subsequent assembly, we obtained 5810 medium- and high-quality metagenome-assembled genomes (MAGs), out of which 2661 were yet unidentified species. Among these MAGs, we identified 91 bacterial taxa that specifically colonize the sheep gut, which encode polysaccharide utilization loci for glycan and mucin degradation. CONCLUSIONS: By shedding light on the co-symbiotic microbial communities in the gut of small ruminants, our study significantly enhances the understanding of their nutrient degradation and disease susceptibility. Our findings emphasize the vast potential of untapped resources in functional bacterial species within ruminants, further expanding our knowledge of how the ruminant gut microbiota recognizes and processes glycan and mucins. Video Abstract.

[Study on identification of Astragali Radix and Hedysari Radix by PCR amplification of specific alleles].

To explore the new method of discriminating Astragali Radix and Hedysari Radix by using PCR amplification of specific alleles, 30 samples of the different Astragali Radix materials and 28 samples of Hedysari Radix were collected. The total DNA of all samples were extracted, trnL-trnF sequence from Astragali Radix and Hedysari Radix was amplified by PCR and sequenced unidirectionally. These sequences were aligned by using Clustul W. Primer was designed and the PCR reaction systems including annealing temperature, dNTP, etc were optimized. All samples were amplified by PCR with specific primer, DNA from Astragali Radix would be amplified 136 bp, whereas PCR products from all of Hedysari Radix were 323 bp. This method can detect 10% of intentional Hedysari Radix DNA into Astragali Radix. PCR amplification of alleles can be used to identify Astragali Radix and Hedysari Radix successfully and is an efficient molecular marker for authentication of Astragali Radix and Hedysari Radix.

Deep Joint Distribution Alignment: A Novel Enhanced-Domain Adaptation Mechanism for Fault Transfer Diagnosis.

Various domain adaptation (DA) methods have been proposed to address distribution discrepancy and knowledge transfer between the source and target domains. However, many DA models focus on matching the marginal distributions of two domains and cannot satisfy fault-diagnosed-task requirements. To enhance the ability of DA, a new DA mechanism, called deep joint distribution alignment (DJDA), is proposed to simultaneously reduce the discrepancy in marginal and conditional distributions between two domains. A new statistical metric that can align the means and covariances of two domains is designed to match the marginal distributions of the source and target domains. To align the class conditional distributions, a Gaussian mixture model is used to obtain the distribution of each category in the target domain. Then, the conditional distributions of the source domain are computed via maximum-likelihood estimation, and information entropy and Wasserstein distance are employed to reduce class conditional distribution discrepancy between the two domains. With joint distribution alignment, DJDA can achieve domain confusion to the highest degree. DJDA is applied to the fault transfer diagnosis of a wind turbine gearbox and cross-bearing with unlabeled target-domain samples. Experimental results verify that DJDA outperforms other typical DA models.

Persistence is driven by a prefrontal motor circuit.

Persistence provides a long-lasting effect on actions, including avoiding predators and storing energy, and hence is crucial for the survival (Adolphs and Anderson, 2018). However, how the brain loads persistence on movements is unknown. Here, we demonstrate that being persistent is determined at the initial phase of movement, and this persistency will be sustained until the terminal signaling. The neural coding of persistent movement phases (initial or terminal) is independent from the judgement (i.e. valence) (Li et al., 2022; Wang et al., 2018) upon the external stimuli. Next, we identify a group of dorsal medial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC) motor cortex projecting (MP) neurons (Wang and Sun, 2021), which encodes the initial phase of a persistent movement rather than the valence. Inactivation of dmPFC MP neurons impairs the initiation of persistency and reduce the neural activity in the insular and motor cortex. Finally, a MP network-based computational model suggests that an intact, successive sensory stimulus acts as a triggering signal to direct the initiation of persistent movements. These findings reveal a neural mechanism that transforms the brain state from neutral to persistent during a movement.

Learning induced neuronal identity switch in the superficial layers of the primary somatosensory cortex.

During learning, multi-dimensional inputs are integrated within the sensory cortices. However, the strategies by which the sensory cortex employs to achieve learning remains poorly understood. We studied the sensory cortical neuronal coding of trace eyeblink conditioning (TEC) in head-fixed, freely running mice, where whisker deflection was used as a conditioned stimulus (CS) and an air puff to the cornea delivered after an interval was used as unconditioned stimulus (US). After training, mice learned the task with a set of stereotypical behavioral changes, most prominent ones include prolonged closure of eyelids, and increased reverse running between CS and US onset. The local blockade of the primary somatosensory cortex (S1) activities with muscimol abolished the behavior learning suggesting that S1 is required for the TEC. In naive animals, based on the response properties to the CS and US, identities of the small proportion (~20%) of responsive primary neurons (PNs) were divided into two subtypes: CR (i.e. CS-responsive) and UR neurons (i.e. US-responsive). After animals learned the task, identity of CR and UR neurons changed: while the CR neurons are less responsive to CS, UR neurons gain responsiveness to CS, a new phenomenon we defined as 'learning induced neuronal identity switch (LINIS)'. To explore the potential mechanisms underlying LINIS, we found that systemic and local (i.e. in S1) administration of the nicotinic receptor antagonist during TEC training blocked the LINIS, and concomitantly disrupted the behavior learning. Additionally, we monitored responses of two types of cortical interneurons (INs) and observed that the responses of the somatostatin-expressing (SST), but not parvalbumin-expressing (PV) INs are negatively correlated with the learning performance, suggesting that SST-INs contribute to the LINIS. Thus, we conclude that L2/3 PNs in S1 encode perceptual learning by LINIS like mechanisms, and cholinergic pathways and cortical SST interneurons are involved in the formation of LINIS.