A social network analysis model approach to understand tuberculosis transmission in remote rural Madagascar.

BACKGROUND: Quality surveillance data used to build tuberculosis (TB) transmission models are frequently unavailable and may overlook community intrinsic dynamics that impact TB transmission. Social network analysis (SNA) generates data on hyperlocal social-demographic structures that contribute to disease transmission. METHODS: We collected social contact data in five villages and built SNA-informed village-specific stochastic TB transmission models in remote Madagascar. A name-generator approach was used to elicit individual contact networks. Recruitment included confirmed TB patients, followed by snowball sampling of named contacts. Egocentric network data were aggregated into village-level networks. Network- and individual-level characteristics determining contact formation and structure were identified by fitting an exponential random graph model (ERGM), which formed the basis of the contact structure and model dynamics. Models were calibrated and used to evaluate WHO-recommended interventions and community resiliency to foreign TB introduction. RESULTS: Inter- and intra-village SNA showed variable degrees of interconnectivity, with transitivity (individual clustering) values of 0.16, 0.29, and 0.43. Active case finding and treatment yielded 67%-79% reduction in active TB disease prevalence and a 75% reduction in TB mortality in all village networks. Following hypothetical TB elimination and without specific interventions, networks A and B showed resilience to both active and latent TB reintroduction, while Network C, the village network with the highest transitivity, lacked resiliency to reintroduction and generated a TB prevalence of 2% and a TB mortality rate of 7.3% after introduction of one new contagious infection post hypothetical elimination. CONCLUSION: In remote Madagascar, SNA-informed models suggest that WHO-recommended interventions reduce TB disease (active TB) prevalence and mortality while TB infection (latent TB) burden remains high. Communities' resiliency to TB introduction decreases as their interconnectivity increases. "Top down" population level TB models would most likely miss this difference between small communities. SNA bridges large-scale population-based and hyper focused community-level TB modeling.

Incidence of cough from acute exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) in Madagascar: A pilot study.

Prolonged exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) is a known risk to respiratory health, causing chronic lung impairment. Yet, the immediate, acute effects of PM2.5 exposure on respiratory symptoms, such as cough, are less understood. This pilot study aims to investigate this relationship using objective PM2.5 and cough monitors. Fifteen participants from rural Madagascar were followed for three days, equipped with an RTI Enhanced Children's MicroPEM PM2.5 sensor and a smartphone with the ResApp Cough Counting Software application. Univariable Generalized Estimating Equation (GEE) models were applied to measure the association between hourly PM2.5 exposure and cough counts. Peaks in both PM2.5 concentration and cough frequency were observed during the day. A 10-fold increase in hourly PM2.5 concentration corresponded to a 39% increase in same-hour cough frequency (incidence rate ratio (IRR) = 1.40; 95% CI: 1.12, 1.74). The strength of this association decreased with a one-hour lag between PM2.5 exposure and cough frequency (IRR = 1.21; 95% CI: 1.01, 1.44) and was not significant with a two-hour lag (IRR = 0.93; 95% CI: 0.71, 1.23). This study demonstrates the feasibility of objective PM2.5 and cough monitoring in remote settings. An association between hourly PM2.5 exposure and cough frequency was detected, suggesting that PM2.5 exposure may have immediate effects on respiratory health. Further investigation is necessary in larger studies to substantiate these findings and understand the broader implications.

Cross-sectional cycle threshold values reflect epidemic dynamics of COVID-19 in Madagascar.

As the national reference laboratory for febrile illness in Madagascar, we processed samples from the first epidemic wave of COVID-19, between March and September 2020. We fit generalized additive models to cycle threshold (Ct) value data from our RT-qPCR platform, demonstrating a peak in high viral load, low-Ct value infections temporally coincident with peak epidemic growth rates estimated in real time from publicly-reported incidence data and retrospectively from our own laboratory testing data across three administrative regions. We additionally demonstrate a statistically significant effect of duration of time since infection onset on Ct value, suggesting that Ct value can be used as a biomarker of the stage at which an individual is sampled in the course of an infection trajectory. As an extension, the population-level Ct distribution at a given timepoint can be used to estimate population-level epidemiological dynamics. We illustrate this concept by adopting a recently-developed, nested modeling approach, embedding a within-host viral kinetics model within a population-level Susceptible-Exposed-Infectious-Recovered (SEIR) framework, to mechanistically estimate epidemic growth rates from cross-sectional Ct distributions across three regions in Madagascar. We find that Ct-derived epidemic growth estimates slightly precede those derived from incidence data across the first epidemic wave, suggesting delays in surveillance and case reporting. Our findings indicate that public reporting of Ct values could offer an important resource for epidemiological inference in low surveillance settings, enabling forecasts of impending incidence peaks in regions with limited case reporting.

Cross-sectional cycle threshold values reflect epidemic dynamics of COVID-19 in Madagascar.

As the national reference laboratory for febrile illness in Madagascar, we processed samples from the first epidemic wave of COVID-19, between March and September 2020. We fit generalized additive models to cycle threshold (C t ) value data from our RT-qPCR platform, demonstrating a peak in high viral load, low-C t value infections temporally coincident with peak epidemic growth rates estimated in real time from publicly-reported incidence data and retrospectively from our own laboratory testing data across three administrative regions. We additionally demonstrate a statistically significant effect of duration of time since infection onset on C t value, suggesting that C t value can be used as a biomarker of the stage at which an individual is sampled in the course of an infection trajectory. As an extension, the population-level C t distribution at a given timepoint can be used to estimate population-level epidemiological dynamics. We illustrate this concept by adopting a recently-developed, nested modeling approach, embedding a within-host viral kinetics model within a population-level Susceptible-Exposed-Infectious-Recovered (SEIR) framework, to mechanistically estimate epidemic growth rates from cross-sectional C t distributions across three regions in Madagascar. We find that C t -derived epidemic growth estimates slightly precede those derived from incidence data across the first epidemic wave, suggesting delays in surveillance and case reporting. Our findings indicate that public reporting of C t values could offer an important resource for epidemiological inference in low surveillance settings, enabling forecasts of impending incidence peaks in regions with limited case reporting.

The COVID-19 epidemic in Madagascar: clinical description and laboratory results of the first wave, march-september 2020.

BACKGROUND: Following the first detection of SARS-CoV-2 in passengers arriving from Europe on 19 March 2020, Madagascar took several mitigation measures to limit the spread of the virus in the country. METHODS: Nasopharyngeal and/or oropharyngeal swabs were collected from travellers to Madagascar, suspected SARS-CoV-2 cases and contact of confirmed cases. Swabs were tested at the national reference laboratory using real-time RT-PCR. Data collected from patients were entered in an electronic database for subsequent statistical analysis. All distribution of laboratory-confirmed cases were mapped, and six genomes of viruses were fully sequenced. RESULTS: Overall, 26,415 individuals were tested for SARS-CoV-2 between 18 March and 18 September 2020, of whom 21.0% (5,553/26,145) returned positive. Among laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2-positive patients, the median age was 39 years (IQR: 28-52), and 56.6% (3,311/5,553) were asymptomatic at the time of sampling. The probability of testing positive increased with age with the highest adjusted odds ratio of 2.2 [95% CI: 1.9-2.5] for individuals aged 49 years and more. Viral strains sequenced belong to clades 19A, 20A and 20B indicative of several independent introduction of viruses. CONCLUSIONS: Our study describes the first wave of the COVID-19 in Madagascar. Despite early strategies in place Madagascar could not avoid the introduction and spread of the virus. More studies are needed to estimate the true burden of disease and make public health recommendations for a better preparation to another wave.

Latent tuberculosis infection prevalence in rural Madagascar.

BACKGROUND: Understanding latent Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection (LTBI) prevalence is crucial for the design of TB control strategies. There are no data on LTBI in rural Madagascar. METHODS: Tuberculin skin tests were performed in 98 adults aged >15 y in five rural villages in the Ifanadiana district, Madagascar. RESULTS: Of adults, 78.6% were positive for LTBI, ranging between 28.6% and 95.0% among villages. The majority (65.3%) showed an induration reaction of >15 mm. CONCLUSIONS: LTBI prevalence is high in rural Madagascar. Long-term TB control strategies including LTBI testing and treatment must account for high and heterogeneous prevalence in remote, underdeveloped areas.