Feasibility of Project Mentor: A Mentoring Program Based on Self-Determination Theory for Adolescents Classified as Overweight.

Purpose: This study examined the feasibility of Project Mentor, a mentoring program based on self-determination theory (SDT) for youth classified as overweight or obese. Methods: In Study 1, youth (N = 23) ranging from 12-18 years of age were randomly assigned to a mentoring intervention or wait-list control condition. Study 2 served as a replication sample and consisted of N = 38 youth who participated in the mentoring program. As part of a process evaluation, attendance and exercise heart rate were monitored to assess whether participants exercised at a moderate-to-vigorous level as intended. Mentees also rated whether mentors created a need-supportive environment. For outcome evaluation, basic need satisfaction, behavioral regulation, fitness, and body composition were assessed at pre, post, and follow-up. Results: Across both studies, participants attended over 80% of the exercise sessions and exercised at a moderate to vigorous intensity level. Mentees also perceived that mentors created a need-supportive environment. Post-test and follow-up basic need scores were higher than baseline values and autonomous motivation increased for mentoring program participants. Effect sizes were generally moderate to large in magnitude based on partial eta-squared and Cohen d. Aerobic fitness (i.e., Vo2peak) showed a moderate to large increase at post-test that was partially maintained at follow-up. Body composition changes were nonsignificant and small in magnitude. Participants in the wait-list control reported showed small changes or decreases across SDT related constructs, fitness, and body composition across both studies. Conclusions: Results across both studies support the feasibility of a mentoring program focused on CARE (competence, autonomy, relatedness, and enjoyment).

Association of parent, coach, and peer motivational climate with high school athlete burnout and engagement: Comparing mediation and moderation models.

The purpose of this study was to (1) examine the direct association of parent-, coach-, and peer-initiated motivational climate with high school athlete burnout and engagement and (2) evaluate whether peer-initiated motivational climate mediates or moderates the association of coach-initiated motivational climate with burnout and engagement. Athletes (n = 150) completed a survey on their perceptions of parent-, coach-, and peer-initiated motivational climate, burnout, and engagement. Findings supported the mediation model, but not the moderation model. In addition to mastery and performance climate direct effects, significant medium-to-large indirect pathways from coach mastery climate → peer mastery climate → burnout, ß = -.15, 95% CI [-.333, -.009], and coach mastery climate → peer mastery climate → engagement, ß = .19, 95% CI [.020, .293] were observed. Findings support that a parent, coach, and peer-initiated mastery motivational climate was associated with burnout and engagement while a performance climate was mostly unrelated to these indices of athlete well-being. In addition to direct associations with burnout and engagement, coaches also had an indirect association through peer mastery-initiated motivational climate. Findings advance understanding of how parents, coaches, and peers conjointly shape athlete burnout and engagement.

Parent Motivational Climate, Sport Enrollment Motives, and Young Athlete Commitment and Enjoyment in Year-Round Swimming.

Parents are known to influence the athlete sport experience through motivational climates. Athletes' perception of motivational climates and their own motives for sport participation influence enjoyment and long-term sport commitment. It is unknown, however, the extent parent motives for initially enrolling their child in a year-round sports program associate with children's sport participation enjoyment and commitment. The purposes of this study were to (a) determine parent motives for enrolling their child (5-8 years) in year-round swimming and (b) explore the relationships of parent motives and motivational climates with child enjoyment and commitment. Parents (n = 40) completed questionnaires on enrollment motives and motivational climate, while children (n = 40) answered questions on enjoyment and commitment. Of the seven motives measured, parents enrolled children in swimming primarily for fitness benefits (M = 4.5, SD = .45) followed by skill mastery (M = 4.31, SD = .48) and fun (M = 4.10, SD = .51) reasons. Findings revealed the fitness motive was moderately, negatively correlated with the success-without-effort facet of a performance climate (r = -.50, p < .01). The fun motive was moderately, positively associated with commitment (r = .43, p < .01). Parent motives for enrolling their child in sport may impact the young child sport experience and long-term sport continuation via motivational climates, enjoyment, and commitment.

A randomized controlled trial of continuous activity, short bouts, and a 10,000 step guideline in inactive adults.

OBJECTIVE: Although several studies have examined the effect of accumulated bouts on health outcomes, the impact of recommending short bouts on activity-related behavior in health promotion efforts has received minimal investigation. METHOD: During this 5-week study in 2007-2008, 43 university employees (8 male, 35 female) in the Southeastern United States were randomly assigned to a group recommended to achieve (a) 10,000 steps (10K), (b) 30-minutes (30 min) of continuous physical activity, or (c) 30-minutes of activity in bouts of at least 10 minutes (bouts). RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: Repeated measures ANOVA revealed that the 10K group showed the largest increase in step counts whereas the bouts group showed the smallest change over the intervention period, p=0.01. Condition differences were most pronounced on days in which participants met their activity recommendation. Accelerometer results revealed that the 10K (d=1.1) and 30 min groups (d=0.89) showed large increases in minutes of moderate to vigorous activity (MVPA), whereas the bouts group showed minimal change (d=0.11). Although activity recommendations did not differentially affect self-efficacy, participants from all conditions showed decreased self-efficacy across the intervention (p=0.02), highlighting the need to develop strategies to increase self-efficacy in activity promotion efforts.

Self-determined motivation and students' physical activity during structured physical education lessons and free choice periods.

OBJECTIVE: Various organizations have suggested that physical education (PE) should play a central role in increasing adolescents' physical activity (PA) levels. The purpose of this study was to examine relationships between students' self-determined motivation and their PA behavior during a structured PE lesson led by their teacher and a free-choice period in which they were not required to be active. METHODS: 528 Hong Kong students (mean age=15.78 years) participated in this study in April and May 2007. Situational Motivation Scale scores were used to form high and low self-determined motivation groups. Students wore a pedometer during a 20-minute structured basketball lesson and a 20-minute free choice period, during which they did not receive instruction. RESULTS: ANOVA revealed that self-determined motivation and PE class environments which provided students opportunities to make choices were related to greater PA. Furthermore, the difference in PA between the high and low self-determined groups was greater in the free-choice condition than the structured lesson, suggesting that self-determined motivation is especially important when students are not supervised. CONCLUSION: Findings indicated that promoting self-determined motivation may be an effective means of ensuring that PE programs are able to increase PA levels, foster self-initiated PA behaviors, and enhance adolescents' health.

Race and sex differences in college student physical activity correlates.

OBJECTIVES: To assess sex/race differences on psychosocial correlates of physical activity among college students. METHODS: Survey research protocol. RESULTS: Students (n=636) exercised an average of 3.5 days per week, with black females being the least active. Across subgroups, health/fitness was rated as the most important motive for exercise, followed by appearance and mental health. Of the correlates, enjoyment and the use of self-management strategies were most strongly associated with activity level. Only 40% were aware that adults should accumulate 30 minutes of moderate-intensity physical activity on most days (ie, 5) of the week for health benefits. CONCLUSIONS: Findings highlight the importance of teaching self-management skills and fostering exercise enjoyment in health promotion programs for college students.

High-intensity exercise to promote accelerated improvements in cardiorespiratory fitness (HI-PACE): study protocol for a randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: African Americans have a disproportionate prevalence and incidence of type 2 diabetes compared with Caucasians. Recent evidence indicates that low cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) level, an independent risk factor for type 2 diabetes, is also more prevalent in African Americans than Caucasians. Numerous studies in Caucasian populations suggest that vigorous exercise intensity may promote greater improvements in CRF and other type 2 diabetes risk factors (e.g., reduction of glucose/insulin levels, pulse wave velocity, and body fat) than moderate intensity. However, current evidence comparing health benefits of different aerobic exercise intensities on type 2 diabetes risk factors in African Americans is negligible. This is clinically important as African Americans have a greater risk for type 2 diabetes and are less likely to meet public health recommendations for physical activity than Caucasians. The purpose of the HI-PACE (High-Intensity exercise to Promote Accelerated improvements in CardiorEspiratory fitness) study is to evaluate whether high-intensity aerobic exercise elicits greater improvements in CRF, insulin action, and arterial stiffness than moderate-intensity exercise in African Americans. METHODS/DESIGN: A randomized controlled trial will be performed on overweight and obese (body mass index of 25-45 kg/m2) African Americans (35-65 years) (n = 60). Participants will be randomly assigned to moderate-intensity (MOD-INT) or high-intensity (HIGH-INT) aerobic exercise training or a non-exercise control group (CON) for 24 weeks. Supervised exercise will be performed at a heart rate associated with 45-55% and 70-80% of VO2 max in the MOD-INT and HIGH-INT groups, respectively, for an exercise dose of 600 metabolic equivalents of task (MET)-minutes per week (consistent with public health recommendations). The primary outcome is change in CRF. Secondary outcomes include change in insulin sensitivity (measured via an intravenous glucose tolerance test), skeletal muscle mitochondrial oxidative capacity (via near-infrared spectroscopy), skeletal muscle measurements (i.e., citrate synthase, COX IV, GLUT-4, CPT-1, and PGC1-α), arterial stiffness (via carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity), body fat, C-reactive protein, and psychological outcomes (quality of life/exercise enjoyment). DISCUSSION: The anticipated results of the HI-PACE study will provide vital information on the health effects of high-intensity exercise in African Americans. This study will advance health disparity research and has the potential to influence future public health guidelines for physical activity. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT02892331 . Registered on September 8, 2016.

High Versus Low Theoretical Fidelity Pedometer Intervention Using Social-Cognitive Theory on Steps and Self-Efficacy.

PURPOSE: This study was designed to compare a low versus high theoretical fidelity pedometer intervention applying social-cognitive theory on step counts and self-efficacy. METHOD: Fifty-six public university employees participated in a 10-week randomized controlled trial with 2 conditions that varied in theoretical fidelity. Participants in the high theoretical fidelity condition wore a pedometer and participated in a weekly group walk followed by a meeting to discuss cognitive-behavioral strategies targeting self-efficacy. Participants in the low theoretical fidelity condition met for a group walk and also used a pedometer as a motivational tool and to monitor steps. Step counts were assessed throughout the 10-week intervention and after a no-treatment follow-up (20 weeks and 30 weeks). Self-efficacy was measured preintervention and postintervention. RESULTS: Participants in the high theoretical fidelity condition increased daily steps by 2,283 from preintervention to postintervention, whereas participants in the low fidelity condition demonstrated minimal change during the same time period (p = .002). Individuals attending at least 80% of the sessions in the high theoretical fidelity condition showed an increase of 3,217 daily steps (d = 1.03), whereas low attenders increased by 925 (d = 0.40). Attendance had minimal impact in the low theoretical fidelity condition. Follow-up data revealed that step counts were at least somewhat maintained. For self-efficacy, participants in the high, compared with those in the low, theoretical fidelity condition showed greater improvements. CONCLUSION: Findings highlight the importance of basing activity promotion efforts on theory. The high theoretical fidelity intervention that included cognitive-behavioral strategies targeting self-efficacy was more effective than the low theoretical fidelity intervention, especially for those with high attendance.

Perfectionism, Burnout, and Motivation in Dance: A Replication and Test of the 2×2 Model of Perfectionism.

The relationships between multidimensional perfectionism, burnout, and motivation were examined. In so doing, this study aimed to replicate and extend the study by Cumming and Duda (2012). Ninety-one ballet dancers completed questionnaires assessing the target constructs. Using cluster analysis, four profiles emerged that replicated Cumming and Duda's findings and generally supported Gaudrau and Thompson's 2x2 model of perfectionism. As such, these profiles represented pure personal standards perfectionism, mixed perfectionism, pure evaluative concerns perfectionism, and non-perfectionism. Extending previous literature, the four profiles were then compared on a range of burnout symptoms and motivational regulations. It was found that the four clusters differed significantly on these constructs, in a manner partly supportive of the hypotheses associated with the 2x2 model of perfectionism. In particular, our results reflect and extend those of Cumming and Duda, in that mixed perfectionism and pure evaluative concerns perfectionism did not differ on any of the measures. Thus, the higher personal standards of dancers exhibiting mixed perfectionism did not appear to be associated with better functioning than that experienced by dancers with pure evaluative concerns perfectionism. Altogether, the study extends our current understanding of perfectionism in dance and its potential effects, including those on burnout and motivation.

The effects of a low-dose physical activity intervention on physical activity and body mass index in severely obese adolescents.

Background While severe obesity in childhood poses the greatest long-term health risks, access to treatment is a common barrier. The present pilot study examined the effect of a 7-week low-dose physical activity (PA) intervention on PA and body mass index (BMI) in severe obese adolescents delivered via telephone and mail. Methods Adolescents (n = 64) receiving care from a pediatric obesity medical clinic were randomized to a control (n = 30) or intervention (n = 34) group. Height and weight were measured and BMI z-scores were calculated. PA was assessed by a pedometer. All measurements were completed pre- and post-intervention. The intervention group received weekly newsletters and telephone calls discussing various PA topics based on motivational interviewing for 7 weeks. The control group received no contact. A series of 2 × 2 (group by time) repeated measures analysis of covariances (ANCOVAs) adjusting for length of time between visits were performed to examine the effect of the intervention on PA and BMI z-scores. Results The majority of adolescents were severely obese (77%, BMI: > 99th percentile). Intention-to-treat analysis revealed intervention effects were not observed for either pedometer steps or BMI z-score (p > 0.05). Among those with complete data, adolescents who successfully changed their BMI z-score had larger BMI z-score changes than those who did not change their BMI z-score (p = 0.0001). This improvement was due to something other than PA as the change in BMI z-score was similar among those who did and did not successfully increase PA levels (p > 0.05). Conclusions More intensive, comprehensive, and longer-term treatment is needed in this high risk population.

Effects of a classroom-based program on physical activity and on-task behavior.

PURPOSE: This study evaluated the effects of a classroom-based physical activity program on children's in-school physical activity levels and on-task behavior during academic instruction. METHODS: Physical activity of 243 students was assessed during school hours. Intervention-group students (N = 135) received a classroom-based program (i.e., Energizers). The control group (N = 108) did not receive Energizers. On-task behavior during academic instruction time was observed for 62 third-grade (N = 37) and fourth-grade students (N = 25) before and after Energizers activities. An independent groups t-test compared in-school physical activity levels between intervention and control classes. A multiple-baseline across-classrooms design was used to evaluate the effectiveness of the Energizers on on-task behavior. Additionally, a two-way (time [pre- vs postobservation] x period [baseline vs intervention]) repeated-measures analysis of variance compared on-task behavior between observation periods. Magnitudes of mean differences were evaluated with Cohen's delta (ES). RESULTS: Students in the intervention group took significantly (P < 0.05) more in-school steps (5587 +/- 1633) than control-group students (4805 +/- 1543), and the size of this difference was moderate (ES = 0.49). The intervention was effective in improving on-task behavior; after the Energizers were systematically implemented, on-task behavior systematically improved. The improvement in on-task behavior of 8% between the pre-Energizers and post-Energizers observations was statistically significant (P < 0.017), and the difference was moderate (ES = 0.60). Likewise, the least on-task students improved on-task behavior by 20% after Energizers activities. This improvement was statistically significant (P < 0.001) and meaningful (ES = 2.20). CONCLUSION: A classroom-based physical activity program was effective for increasing daily in-school physical activity and improving on-task behavior during academic instruction.

Dieting practices, weight perceptions, and body composition: a comparison of normal weight, overweight, and obese college females.

BACKGROUND: Of concern to health educators is the suggestion that college females practice diet and health behaviors that contradict the 2005 dietary guidelines for Americans. In this regard, there remain gaps in the research related to dieting among college females. Namely, do normal weight individuals diet differently from those who are overweight or obese, and are there dieting practices used by females that can be adapted to promote a healthy body weight? Since it is well recognized that females diet, this study seeks to determine the dieting practices used among normal, overweight, and obese college females (do they diet differently) and identify dieting practices that could be pursued to help these females more appropriately achieve and maintain a healthy body weight. METHODS: A total of 185 female college students aged 18 to 24 years participated in this study. Height, weight, waist and hip circumferences, and skinfold thickness were measured to assess body composition. Surveys included a dieting practices questionnaire and a 30-day physical activity recall. Participants were classified according to body mass index (BMI) as normal weight (n = 113), overweight (n = 35), or obese (n = 21). Data were analyzed using JMP IN(R) software. Descriptive statistics included means, standard deviations, and frequency. Subsequent data analysis involved Pearson X2 and one-way analysis of variance with comparison for all pairs that were significantly different using Tukey-Kramer honestly significant difference test. RESULTS: Outcomes of this study indicate the majority of participants (83%) used dieting for weight loss and believed they would be 2% to 6% greater than current weight if they did not diet; normal weight, overweight, and obese groups perceived attractive weight to be 94%, 85%, and 74%, respectively, of current weight; 80% of participants reported using physical activity to control weight, although only 19% exercised at a level that would promote weight loss; only two of 15 dieting behaviors assessed differed in terms of prevalence of use among groups, which were consciously eating less than you want (44% normal weight, 57% overweight, 81% obese) and using artificial sweeteners (31% normal weight and overweight, 5% obese); and the most prevalent explicit maladaptive weight loss behavior was smoking cigarettes (used by 9% of participants) and most unhealthy was skipping breakfast (32%). CONCLUSION: Collectively, results indicate female college students, regardless of weight status, would benefit from open discussions with health educators regarding healthy and effective dieting practices to achieve/maintain a healthy body weight. The results are subject to replication among high school, middle-aged, and older females.

Development and Preliminary Validation of an Athlete Burnout Measure.

The purpose of this research was to develop a psychometrically sound measure of athlete burnout. In Study 1, exploratory factor analysis revealed burn-out dimensions reflective of emotional/physical exhaustion, reduced sense of swimming accomplishment, and swimming devaluation. In two subsequent studies, the psychometric properties of a refined version of this measure were examined. Independent samples of senior age-group swimmers and college athletes from a variety of sports completed a questionnaire that tapped the three burnout dimensions as well as stress- and motivation-related variables. Confirmatory factor analysis and alternative model testing supported the specified three-factor burnout model. In support of construct validity, the burnout subscales correlated positively with stress, trait anxiety, and amotivation, and correlated negatively with coping, social support, enjoyment, commitment, and intrinsic motivation indices across the two studies.

Effect of an exercise training intervention with resistance bands on blood cell counts during chemotherapy for lung cancer: a pilot randomized controlled trial.

PURPOSE: Chemotherapy for lung cancer can have a detrimental effect on white blood cell (WBC) and red blood cell (RBC) counts. Physical exercise may have a role in improving WBCs and RBCs, although few studies have examined cancer patients receiving adjuvant therapies. The purpose of this pilot trial was to examine the effects of an exercise intervention utilizing resistance bands on WBCs and RBCs in lung cancer patients receiving curative intent chemotherapy. METHODS: A sample of lung cancer patients scheduled for curative intent chemotherapy was randomly assigned to the exercise intervention (EX) condition or usual care (UC) condition. The EX condition participated in a three times weekly exercise program using resistance bands for the duration of chemotherapy. RESULTS: A total of 14 lung cancer patients completed the trial. EX condition participants completed 79% of planned exercise sessions. The EX condition was able to maintain WBCs over the course of the intervention compared to declines in the UC condition (p = .008; d = 1.68). There were no significant differences in change scores in RBCs. CONCLUSIONS: Exercise with resistance bands may help attenuate declines in WBCs in lung cancer patients receiving curative intent chemotherapy. Larger trials are warranted to validate these findings. Ultimately these findings could be informative for the development of supportive care strategies for lung cancer patients receiving chemotherapy. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Clinical Trials Registration #: NCT01130714.

Exercise programming and counseling preferences of breast cancer survivors during or after radiation therapy.

PURPOSE/OBJECTIVES: To explore exercise programming and counseling preferences and exercise-related beliefs in breast cancer survivors during and after radiation therapy, and to compare differences based on treatment and insurance status. DESIGN: Cross-sectional survey. SETTING: Ambulatory cancer center in a rural community in eastern North Carolina. SAMPLE: 91 breast cancer survivors during or after radiation therapy. METHODS: The researchers administered the questionnaire to participants. MAIN RESEARCH VARIABLES: Exercise programming and counseling preferences and exercise beliefs moderated by treatment status (on-treatment, early, and late survivors) and insurance status (Medicaid, non-Medicaid). FINDINGS: Chi-square analyses indicated that fewer Medicaid users were physically active and reported health benefits as an advantage of exercise compared to non-Medicaid users (p < 0.05). In addition, more Medicaid users preferred exercise programming at their cancer center compared to non-Medicaid users (p < 0.05). More on-treatment and early survivors listed health benefits as advantages to exercise, but fewer indicated weight control as an advantage compared to late survivors (p < 0.05). Early survivors were more likely than on-treatment survivors to indicate that accessible facilities would make exercising easier for them (p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Medicaid users are less active, less likely to identify health benefits as an advantage for exercising, and more likely to prefer cancer center-based exercise programming compared to non-Medicaid users. In addition, on-treatment and early survivors are more likely to list health benefits and less likely to indicate weight control as advantages of exercising compared to late survivors. IMPLICATIONS FOR NURSING: The low activity levels of Medicaid users may be best targeted by providing cancer center-based exercise programming. Exercise interventions may be most effective if tailored to the unique needs of treatment status.

The impact of a student-led pedometer intervention incorporating cognitive-behavioral strategies on step count and self-efficacy.

This study evaluated the effectiveness of a student-led physical activity intervention that incorporated pedometers and cognitive-behavioral strategies. Undergraduate students (N=117) enrolled in upper division exercise and sport science courses recruited participants. Participants in the cognitive-behavioral intervention condition received weekly mentoring from students on strategies to foster self-regulation, whereas those in a minimal intervention control condition (i.e., pedometer and self-monitoring) did not. All volunteers wore a pedometer for 6 weeks, maintained a step-count log, and completed physical activity and barrier self-efficacy measures pre- and postintervention. Repeated measures analysis of variance revealed that intervention condition participants increased their steps more so than those in the control condition, F(5, 570) = 10.1, p < .0001, starting at Week 3, with effect sizes in the moderate range. Intervention condition participants also reported increased physical activity self-efficacy, whereas those in the control condition did not, F(1, 77) = 5.6, p < .03, Cohen d = .47. There were no significant changes in barrier self-efficacy for either group. Overall, these findings suggest a student-led cognitive-behavioral pedometer intervention results in more favorable changes in step counts and physical activity self-efficacy than simply wearing a pedometer and self-monitoring step counts.

Investigating the youth physical activity promotion model: internal structure and external validity evidence for a potential measurement model.

The purpose of the study was to investigate the measurement properties of questionnaires associated with the Youth Physical Activity Promotion (YPAP) model. Data were collected from 296 children in Grades 5-8 using several existing questionnaires corresponding to YPAP model components, a physical activity questionnaire, and 6 consecutive days of pedometer data. Internal validity of the questionnaires was tested using confirmatory factor analyses, and external validity was investigated via correlations with physical activity and body composition. Initial model fit of the questionnaires ranged from poor to very good. After item removal, all scales demonstrated good fit. Correlations with percentage body fat and objectively measured physical activity were low but in the theoretically predicted direction. The current study provides good internal validity evidence and acceptable external validity evidence for a brief set of questionnaire items to investigate the theoretical basis for the YPAP model.

Affective and self-efficacy responses to acute aerobic exercise in sedentary older and younger adults.

This study examined the psychological responses to an acute bout of aerobic exercise in sedentary older and younger adults. Eighteen young (mean age 24 years) and 15 older adults (mean age 64 years) completed a 20-min bout of stationary cycling at 65% of VO2peak. Affective responses were assessed before, during, and immediately after exercise. Participants'exercise self-efficacy beliefs were assessed before and immediately after exercise. Both groups reported reduced pleasant feeling states and self-efficacy and increased physical exhaustion in response to acute exercise. Older adults also demonstrated a significant decrease in revitalization during and after cycling. Correlation analyses revealed that self-efficacy was related to feelings of fatigue during exercise and postexercise feelings of energy and fatigue. Both groups reported negative shifts in affect and self-efficacy during and 5 min after cycling.Acute affective and self-efficacy responses might influence one's motivation to adopt and maintain regular physical activity. The relationship between these acute responses and physical activity behavior across the life span warrants future inquiry.

Multitrait-multimethod investigation of a novel body image measurement technique.

A multitrait-multimethod (MTMM) matrix was used to evaluate validity evidence for a digital image manipulation (DIM) body image measurement technique in young women. One hundred one young women completed the DIM procedure and the Thompson and Gray (1995) Contour Drawing Rating Scale to measure self-ideal discrepancy and size perception accuracy components of body image. Seven-day test-retest reliability was acceptable (R = .81-.95). Convergent validity for self-ideal discrepancy was higher (r = .74) than the corresponding heterotrait, monomethod coefficients (r = .46, r = .23) and heterotrait-heteromethod coefficients (r = .18, r = .12). However, the convergent validity coefficient for size perception accuracy was r = .12. The pattern of correlations in the MTMM matrix met the criteria of Campbell and Fiske (1959) for validity of these procedures to measure self-ideal discrepancy but not size perception accuracy. The DIM procedure addresses some of the criticisms associated with figure-rating scales, such as unrepresentativeness of the figures, scale coarseness, and restriction of range in responses. DIM, therefore, represents a realistic, valid alternative to figure-rating scales for measuring self-ideal discrepancy.

Coaching commitment and turnover: a comparison of current and former coaches.

Although coaching continuity is thought to be important in developing and sustaining quality sport programs, coach turnover is not well understood. Consequently, we used a commitment model to address why some coaches maintain their involvement while others discontinue coaching. For this study, 469 USA Swimming age-group coaches completed a mail survey designed to assess commitment model constructs, including coaching satisfaction, benefits, costs, investments, alternative options, social constraints, and commitment. To test the commitment model, we first used structural equation modeling to assess whether the model provided an adequate fit to the data for current and former coaches. Overall, satisfaction and investments were significantly related to commitment. Moreover, the standardized path coefficients between benefits and costs and satisfaction were also significant. Multivariate analysis of variance andfollow-up analyses revealed that current coaches reported higher commitment as well as less attractive alternative options, higher investments, and higher social constraints compared to former coaches. In replication of past research, we compared current andformer coaches on the benefits and costs associated with coaching.