Biomechanical insights into the aetiology of infraspinatus syndrome.

OBJECTIVE: Infraspinatus syndrome (IS) results from injury to the suprascapular nerve. For reasons that are poorly understood, volleyball players are at greater risk of developing IS than are athletes who compete in other overhead sports. Differences between the shoulder kinematics of volleyball-related overhead skills and those skills demanded by other overhead sports might explain the pronounced prevalence of IS among volleyball athletes. DESIGN: Observational, laboratory-based, cross-sectional study. SETTING: The American Sports Medicine Institute. PARTICIPANTS: Fourteen healthy female Division 1 collegiate volleyball athletes. METHODS: Upper limb biomechanics of 14 healthy female Division 1 collegiate volleyball athletes while spiking and serving were quantified, then compared to the results from data previously obtained from female baseball pitchers and tennis players. RESULTS: Although the general movement pattern at the shoulder girdle is qualitatively similar for the upper limb skills required by a variety of overhead sports, volleyball spiking and serving result in greater shoulder abduction and horizontal adduction at the moment of ball contact/release than do baseball pitching or tennis serving. CONCLUSION: The authors suggest that the unique scapular mechanics which permit the extreme shoulder abduction and horizontal adduction that characterise volleyball spiking and serving place anatomically predisposed volleyball athletes at increased risk for developing cumulative traction-related injury to the suprascapular nerve at the level of the spinoglenoid notch.

New guidelines are needed to manage heat stress in elite sports--The Fédération Internationale de Volleyball (FIVB) Heat Stress Monitoring Programme.

BACKGROUND: There seems to be a discrepancy between the available heat stress guidelines and the actual risk of heat-related illness among professional beach volleyball players competing under hot and humid conditions. OBJECTIVE: To monitor heat stress and record cases of heat-related medical forfeits on the Swatch FIVB Beach Volleyball World Tour. METHODS: The FIVB Heat Stress Monitoring Protocol covered events on the FIVB Beach Volleyball World Tour and FIVB Beach Volleyball World Championships during the 2009, 2010 and 2011 seasons (51 events, most of these double gender). The protocol consisted of (1) measuring the Wet Bulb Globe Temperature (WBGT) on centre court prior to the start of every match, and (2) recording any heat-related medical forfeits during the tournament. RESULTS: Data were collected during 48 of 51 events. There were nine events where the peak WBGT exceeded the US Navy Black flag conditions of >32.3°C and an additional two events where the peak WBGT exceeded 31°C, (meeting Red flag conditions.) In two events, the average WBGT equalled at least 31°C. One case of a medical forfeit related to heat stress was recorded over the 3-year surveillance period: an athlete whose fluid balance was compromised from a 3-day bout of acute gastroenteritis. CONCLUSION: The incidence of significant heat illness among athletes competing on the FIVB Beach Volleyball World Tour appears to be quite low, even though weather conditions frequently result in a WBGT index >32°C. Currently available guidelines appear to be inadequate to fully assess the risk of heat stress and too conservative to inform safety decisions in professional beach volleyball.

Study newsletters, community and ethics advisory boards, and focus group discussions provide ongoing feedback for a large biobank.

The Personalized Medicine Research Project (PMRP) is a population-based biobank with more than 20,000 adult participants in central Wisconsin. A Community Advisory Group (CAG) and Ethics and Security Advisory Board (ESAB) provide ongoing feedback. In addition, the study newsletter is used as a two-way communication tool with study participants. The aim of this study was to assess and compare feedback received from these communication/consultation strategies with results from focus group discussions in relation to protocol changes. In summer 2009, enrollee focus groups were held addressing these topics: newsletter format, readability, and content of three articles written to solicit PMRP subject feedback. The CAG and ESAB jointly reviewed focus group results, discussed protocol changes to access residual blood samples, and made recommendations about the general communication approach. Nearly everyone in three focus groups stated that they wanted more information about PMRP. No focus group participant said that accessing stored samples would have changed their enrollment decision. Most said they wanted to be informed directly about changes affecting their original consent. For minimal-risk PMRP protocol changes, the community, CAG, and ESAB were comfortable with an opt-out model because of the initial broad consent. The planned duration of the biobank extends for decades; therefore regular, ongoing communication to enrollees is necessary to maintain awareness and trust, especially relating to protocol changes reflecting evolving science. The multi-faceted approach to communication including newsletters, external advisory boards, and focus group discussions has been successful for the PMRP biobank and may be a model for others to consider.

Diagnosis and management of vascular injuries in the shoulder girdle of the overhead athlete.

Vascular injuries represent a rare cause of shoulder pain and functional limitation among overhead athletes. Complaints of heaviness, fatigue, paresthesias, and effort-related pain should prompt the sports medicine clinician to consider vascular pathology as a possible cause of such symptoms. Position-dependent compression of the subclavian and axillary vessels within the thoracic outlet may result in functional limitation and a decline in overhead athletic performance, particularly when symptoms occur in the dominant upper limb. Treatment options include physical therapy and (in the case of thrombus) thrombolysis, but surgical decompression of the neurovascular bundle is generally advocated. This article reviews the diagnosis and management of effort thrombosis (also known as Paget-Schroetter syndrome), arterial thoracic outlet syndrome, and entrapment of the posterior circumflex humeral artery within the quadrilateral space. Familiarity with these conditions may help to minimize the risk of delayed diagnosis and associated morbidity.

Injuries among disabled athletes during the 2002 Winter Paralympic Games.

PURPOSE: This prospective injury surveillance study was conducted to better understand the types of and risk factors of injuries sustained by athletes with disabilities competing in adapted winter sports at the elite level. METHODS: Detailed information was collected on all injuries evaluated by polyclinic or venue medical personnel during the operational 20-d period of the 2002 Winter Paralympics. RESULTS: A total of 39 injuries involving 9% of the Paralympic athletes were recorded in the injury registry. Most of these injuries were of acute, traumatic onset and involved the disciplines of alpine skiing and sledge hockey. Sprains (32%), fractures (21%), and strains and lacerations (14% each) represented the most common diagnoses. Of the recorded injuries, eight (21%) resulted in time lost from training or competition. CONCLUSIONS: The injury patterns observed among winter Paralympians in this study are not appreciably different from able-bodied athletes competing in similar disciplines, although in many instances the risk factors for sport-specific injury appear to be unique to disabled or adapted competition. Our preliminary observations suggest that several of the more severe injuries were potentially preventable. Ongoing data collection by the International Paralympic Committee should enable feasible injury prevention strategies to be designed and implemented.

A Comparison of Women's Collegiate and Girls' High School Volleyball Injury Data Collected Prospectively Over a 4-Year Period.

BACKGROUND: There is a relative paucity of research examining the sport-specific injury epidemiology of high school and collegiate volleyball athletes. Moreover, differences in study methodology frequently limit our ability to compare and contrast injury data collected from selected populations. HYPOTHESIS: There are differences between the injury patterns characteristic of high school and collegiate female volleyball athletes. STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective clinical review. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level 3. METHODS: We statistically analyzed injury incidence and outcome data collected over a 4-year interval (2005-2006 to 2008-2009) by 2 similar injury surveillance systems, the National Collegiate Athletic Association's Injury Surveillance System (NCAA ISS) and the High School Reporting Injuries Online (HS RIO). We compared diagnoses, anatomic distribution of injuries, mechanisms of injury, and time lost from training or competition between high school and collegiate volleyball athletes. RESULTS: The overall volleyball-related injury rate was significantly greater among collegiate athletes than among high school athletes during both competition (injury rate ratio, 2.9; 95% CI, 2.5-3.4) and practice (injury rate ratio, 3.5; 95% CI, 3.1-3.9). Collegiate athletes had a higher rate of ankle sprain, knee injury, and shoulder injury. Concussions represented a relatively high percentage of injuries in both populations (5.0% of total NCAA ISS injuries vs 4.8% of total HS RIO injuries, respectively). CONCLUSION: The data suggest that although similar, there were distinct differences between the injury patterns of the 2 populations. Compared with high school volleyball players, collegiate athletes have a higher rate of acute time loss injury as well as overuse time loss injury (particularly patellar tendinosis). Concussions represented a significant and worrisome component of the injury pattern for both study populations. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The injury data suggest that important differences exist in the injury patterns of female high school compared with collegiate volleyball athletes. Consideration of the specific injury patterns may be helpful in future prevention efforts.

Injuries among world-class professional beach volleyball players. The Fédération Internationale de Volleyball beach volleyball injury study.

BACKGROUND: Very little is known about the injury characteristics of beach volleyball. PURPOSE: To describe the incidence and pattern of injuries among professional male and female beach volleyball players. STUDY DESIGN: Cohort study--retrospective injury recall and prospective registration. METHODS: Injuries occurring over a 7.5-week interval of the summer season were retrospectively registered by interviewing 178 of the 188 participating players (95%) in the 2001 Beach Volleyball World Championships. Injuries were also cataloged prospectively during five of the tournaments held during this interval. RESULTS: Fifty-four acute injuries was recorded, of which 23 (43%) resulted in 1 or more days of missed practice or competition. The incidence of acute time-loss injuries was estimated to be 3.1 per 1000 competition hours and 0.8 per 1000 training hours. Knee (30%), ankle (17%), and finger injuries (17%) accounted for more than half of all acute time-loss injuries. In addition, 67 players reported 79 overuse injuries for which they received medical attention during the study period. The three most common overuse conditions were low back pain (19%), knee pain (12%), and shoulder problems (10%). Similar results were observed in the prospective portion of the study. CONCLUSIONS: The rate of acute time-loss injuries in beach volleyball is considerably lower than that in most other team sports, but overuse injuries affecting the low back, knees, and shoulder represent a significant source of disability and impaired performance for professional beach volleyball players.

The epidemiology of agriculture-related osteoarthritis and its impact on occupational disability.

BACKGROUND: Hip and knee osteoarthritis and undiagnosed chronic joint pain are more prevalent in agricultural workers than other occupational groups, significantly impacting the ability of small farm operators and farm workers to maintain a livelihood. METHODS: Agricultural risk factors, economic impacts, national and state AgrAbility data, gender, and farm/non-farm prevalence differences of arthritis and joint arthropathy in a Wisconsin farm cohort are reviewed. RESULTS: Agricultural workers (primarily male) are at increased risk for developing osteoarthritis of the hip and knee. In Wisconsin, the prevalence rate of osteoarthritis is higher in a male farm vs. a male rural non-farm cohort. Arthritis comprises 10%-12% of the disability referrals to state and national AgrAbility programs. Back pain, joint injury, and orthopedic injury account for another 38%. The ability to perform agricultural job duties is significantly affected by arthritis and lack of access to health care. Obesity is an additional independent risk factor for osteoarthritis in the rural population. CONCLUSIONS: The agricultural work force is at particular risk for arthritis-related disability. Improved access to health care for diagnosis and treatment can lessen disability. Prevention of arthritis is multi-factorial, involving ergonomic improvements, lifestyle modification to prevent obesity, and adequate medical treatment of arthritis.

Apolipoprotein e4 genotype increases the risk of being diagnosed with posttraumatic fibromyalgia.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether the apolipoprotein E4 (Apo E4) allele may be a genetic risk factor for fibromyalgia syndrome (FMS). DESIGN: A retrospective assessment of associations between Apo E4 genotype and selected environmental exposures among a cohort diagnosed with FMS compared with control subjects. SETTING: Marshfield Clinic Research Foundation's Personalized Medicine Research Project (PMRP) biobank. PARTICIPANTS: One hundred fifty-one case subjects with fibromyalgia and 300 age- and gender-matched control subjects. METHODS: Fibromyalgia case subjects were identified according to a strict phenotypic definition from among the nearly 20,000 subjects enrolled in the PMRP. Age- and gender-matched control subjects also were identified from the PMRP in a 2:1 control/case ratio. Apo E4 genotype was determined by single nucleotide polymorphism analysis for both case subjects with fibromyalgia and control subjects. Case subjects with fibromyalgia and control subjects were asked to assess their level of function and stress by completing the Short Form-36 and the Perceived Stress Scale. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Statistical associations between the Apo E4 genotype and phenotypic criteria (diagnosis of FMS) as well as historical environmental exposures as documented in the electronic medical record were assessed. RESULTS: Approximately one quarter of both case subjects with fibromyalgia and control subjects were found to carry at least one Apo E4 allele. The odds ratio (OR) for case subjects with fibromyalgia who had ever been in a motor vehicle accident and subsequently had been diagnosed with FMS was increased among those with at least one copy of the Apo E4 allele (OR 7.04) compared with those without an Apo E4 allele (OR 1.90). The presence of an Apo E4 allele did not influence the degree of pain or level of function among those with FMS. CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest that specific interactions between genetically susceptible individuals (eg, those with at least one copy of the Apo E4 allele) and the environment (eg, involvement in a motor vehicle accident) may contribute to the risk of being diagnosed with FMS, although Apo E4 allele status does not appear to modulate perceived FMS severity.

Upper limb biomechanics during the volleyball serve and spike.

BACKGROUND: The shoulder is the third-most commonly injured body part in volleyball, with the majority of shoulder problems resulting from chronic overuse. HYPOTHESIS: Significant kinetic differences exist among specific types of volleyball serves and spikes. STUDY DESIGN: Controlled laboratory study. METHODS: Fourteen healthy female collegiate volleyball players performed 5 successful trials of 4 skills: 2 directional spikes, an off-speed roll shot, and the float serve. Volunteers who were competent in jump serves (n, 5) performed 5 trials of that skill. A 240-Hz 3-dimensional automatic digitizing system captured each trial. Multivariate analysis of variance and post hoc paired t tests were used to compare kinetic parameters for the shoulder and elbow across all the skills (except the jump serve). A similar statistical analysis was performed for upper extremity kinematics. RESULTS: Forces, torques, and angular velocities at the shoulder and elbow were lowest for the roll shot and second-lowest for the float serve. No differences were detected between the cross-body and straight-ahead spikes. Although there was an insufficient number of participants to statistically analyze the jump serve, the data for it appear similar to those of the cross-body and straight-ahead spikes. Shoulder abduction at the instant of ball contact was approximately 130° for all skills, which is substantially greater than that previously reported for female athletes performing tennis serves or baseball pitches. CONCLUSION: Because shoulder kinetics were greatest during spiking, the volleyball player with symptoms of shoulder overuse may wish to reduce the number of repetitions performed during practice. Limiting the number of jump serves may also reduce the athlete's risk of overuse-related shoulder dysfunction. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Volleyball-specific overhead skills, such as the spike and serve, produce considerable upper extremity force and torque, which may contribute to the risk of shoulder injury.

Risk factors for volleyball-related shoulder pain and dysfunction.

OBJECTIVE: To identify risk factors for volleyball-related shoulder pain and dysfunction. DESIGN: Cross-sectional, observational. SETTING: National championship sporting event. PARTICIPANTS: Competitors at the 2006 National Intramural & Recreational Sports Association Collegiate Club Volleyball Championship competition were invited to volunteer for the study. A total of 422 athletes returned questionnaires, of whom 276 also underwent a structured physical examination. ASSESSMENT OF RISK FACTORS: Study participants provided information on any history of volleyball-related shoulder pain or dysfunction. The simple shoulder test (SST) and a visual analog scale permitted subjects to quantify the extent of their perceived functional limitation. Subjects also were invited to undergo a physical examination in which dynamic scapular positioning, glenohumeral range of motion, shoulder girdle strength, and core stability were assessed. MAIN OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS: Standard statistical methods of comparison and tests of association were used to identify risk factors for shoulder pain among participating volleyball athletes. RESULTS: Approximately 60% of participants reported a history of shoulder problems. Attackers and "jump" servers were more likely to have shoulder problems than setters, defensive specialists, and "float" servers. Nearly half of the athletes who reported shoulder problems perceived some associated functional limitation, with female athletes providing lower SST scores than male athletes (9.0 versus 10.1, P = .001). Athletes reporting shoulder pain and dysfunction were more likely to have SICK scapula scores of 3 or greater (P = .010). Participants who demonstrated core instability also had greater SICK scapula scores (3.9 versus 2.9, P = .038), and were more likely to report a history of shoulder problems (chi2 = 8.83, P = .032). Although the authors observed a significant mean left-right difference of 8.9 degrees in available glenohumeral internal rotation among participating athletes, this deficit was not associated with shoulder problems. However, there was an association between asymmetric coracoid tightness /pectoral shortening and shoulder pain (P = .030), as well as for restricted shoulder flexion in the sagittal plane and shoulder problems (P = .015). CONCLUSIONS: Although most risk factors for volleyball-related shoulder problems are similar to those identified for other overhead sports, there appear to be additional volleyball-specific risk factors that may reflect the biomechanical demands of the sport. An understanding of modifiable risk factors is critical to providing optimal care for overuse injuries and may facilitate future efforts to prevent shoulder problems among volleyball athletes.

Investigating Perceived Institutional Review Board Quality and Function Using the IRB Researcher Assessment Tool.

THE INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD-RESEARCHER ASSESSMENT TOOL (IRB-RAT) was designed to assess the relative importance of various factors to the effective functioning of IRBs. We employed the IRB-RAT to gain insight into the ways in which our IRB is perceived to be deficient by those who routinely interact with our Office of Research Integrity and Protections. Respondents ranked qualities thought to be characteristic of an "ideal" IRB and then compared our IRB to that internal standard. We observed that the rate of study participation varied by role. The composite relative ranking of the 45 items that comprise the IRB-RAT differed significantly from the rank order reported by Keith-Spiegel et al. Our data furthermore suggest that role influences scoring of the IRB-RAT (e.g., investigators awarded our IRB significantly higher scores in several areas than did research coordinators). Additional research is warranted to determine if the observed role-dependent differences in the perceived quality of our IRB simply reflect the local research culture or if they are indicative of a more fundamental and generalizable difference in outlook between investigators and research coordinators.

Static magnetic fields neither prevent nor diminish symptoms and signs of delayed onset muscle soreness.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether application of a commercially available static magnetic field would alter the signs and/or symptoms of delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) produced by exhaustive eccentric exercise. DESIGN: A double-blinded, randomized, and placebo-controlled study, with subjects serving as their own controls. SETTING: An outpatient physical therapy and performance center. PARTICIPANTS: Twenty-three healthy volunteers (18 women; mean age, 30 y; range, 18-40 y; 5 men; mean age, 29 y; range, 19-39 y). INTERVENTION: After exhaustive eccentric exercise of both the right and left elbow flexor muscle groups, subjects received daily treatment with either a 350G magnet or a placebo device for 5 consecutive days. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Outcome variables, including anthropometric measurements, perceived discomfort, and muscle force production, were compared using linear mixed models. RESULTS: Arm circumference, relaxed elbow flexion angle, and pain increased, whereas active elbow flexion angle and maximal isometric torque decreased transiently before returning to near baseline. No significant difference in outcome variables existed between the treated and control arms. Participants reported less pain in both treated and control arms after each session, suggesting a placebo effect. CONCLUSIONS: Static magnetic fields were no more effective than placebo in preventing DOMS.