The importance of nutritional management and education in the treatment of autism.

Autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) are an early-onset neurodevelopmental disorders. The key symptoms of ASD include social deficits, verbal and non-verbal communication deficits, and restricted, repetitive patterns of behaviour, interests, or activities. Dietary patterns have been evidenced to be related to maternal nutritional status that might lead to different metabolic conditions, and maternal metabolic dysfunction has been observed to be associated with ASD. Furthermore growing evidence suggests that the gut microbiota has a role in the pathophysiology of ASD. Differences in composition of the gastrointestinal (GI) microbiota in children with ASD compared to unaffected siblings and/or healthy unrelated controls have been reported in various studies. The above-mentioned ASD factors and symptoms can be regulated by proper nutrition. The importance of nutrition and its possible impact on ASD patients is key to integral therapy. According to numerous research studies, various nutritional approaches succeeded in reducing the severity of patients' core ASD symptoms. The numerous options for diet that is used in the ASD therapy, as described in the scientific literature, are related to the problem of choosing an appropriate nutritional treatment. Each nutrition programme needs to be personalised and tailored to an individual patient. The aim of the paper is to review the available literature on dietary interventions in children with ASD and provide up-to-date evidence.

Link between methyl nutrients and the DNA methylation process in the course of selected diseases in adults.

DNA methylation is a reversible epigenetic modification that plays a crucial role in transcriptional gene silencing. Both excessive (hypermethylation) and reduced DNA methylation (hypomethylation) can contribute to the disturbance of the proper course of many important processes in the human body. The aim of the study was to discuss the relationship between methyl nutrients and the DNA methylation process in the course of selected diseases in adults. Methyl nutrients include folates (vitamin B9), riboflavin (vitamin B2), cobalamin (vitamin B12), pyridoxine (vitamin B6) and choline (vitamin B4), as well as methionine and betaine. These substances play the role of both substrates and cofactors in transformations related to one-carbon metabolism. The deficiency of methyl nutrients in the body can lead to disturbances in SAM synthesis, which is the primary donor of methyl groups in the DNA methylation process. However, the mechanism explaining the discussed relationship has not been fully explained so far. Both the concentration in the body and the intake of folate and vitamin B12 in the diet can, to some extent, have an effect on the level of DNA methylation in healthy people. In comparison, data on the effect of excessive intake of vitamin B12 in the diet on the risk of cancer development are inconsistent. An adequate betaine and choline intake in the diet might not only affect the overall improvement of the DNA methylation profile, but, to some extent, also reduce the risk of cancer, the effect of which can depend on the content of folic acid in the body. Research results on the effect of supplementation of methyl nutrients on the DNA methylation process are inconclusive. It is therefore necessary to conduct further research in this area to draw clear conclusions.

The legitimacy of using dietary supplement diglycoside secoisolariciresinol (SDG) from flaxseed in cancer.

Linseed, commonly known as flaxseed, is a fibre-rich food product. According to the recent study prepared by the American Institute for Cancer Research (AICR), an adequate intake of dietary fiber contributes to reducing the risk of colorectal cancer. In addition, the flaxseed and the oil extracted from it are considered to be food products with a high content of anti-inflammatory, unsaturated α-linolenic acid (ALA). However, the authors of the most recent scientific research have assigned the anticancer significance of flax seeds to plant lignan - secoisolariciresinol diglycoside (SDG), of which flaxseed is the main food source. This article provides a review of the world scientific literature together with an assessment of the validity of dietary supplementation with SDG from flaxseeds in cancer and during chemotherapeutic treatment. The paper also presents the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) and the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) view on dietary supplementation with flax seeds and its lignans. Additionally, selected dietary supplements available on the Polish market containing SDGs, linseed oil or linseed were analysed, together with a description of their intended use suggested by the manufacturers.

Mediterranean diet adherence among cosmetology students.

BACKGROUND: The Mediterranean diet (MD) is universally recognized as the healthiest model of nutrition whose beneficial effects help prevent many diet-related diseases. OBJECTIVE: The aim of the study was to assess cosmetology students' adherence to the Mediterranean Diet using the Mediterranean Diet Score (MDS). MATERIAL AND METHODS: The study group consisted of 175 cosmetology students of the School of Physiotherapy whose dietary habits were assessed using a validated food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) consisting of 154 food and drink items representative of the diet during the last year. We analyzed data obtained from FFQ and calculated the average number of daily and/or weekly servings from each of the 9 MDS food groups (grains, vegetables, fruits/nuts, milk/dairy products, meat/meat products, legumes, alcohol, olive oil, fish). To obtain more reliable results, we analyzed other products consumed by study participants (sweets, beverages, eggs and potatoes). Study participants were assigned 0, 1 or 2 points for each MDS ingredient. Mediterranean diet adherence was assessed on a 17-point scale. Low adherence to MD was defined at 0-7 points, moderate at 8-10 points, and high at 11-17 points. RESULTS: The mean MDS was 7.1 ± 2.3. Students who were assigned 11-17 points (n = 20) consumed significantly more vegetables, fruits, nuts, legumes, fish, olive oil and significantly less meat, meat products, milk, dairy, and sweets compared to study participants who were assigned the lowest number of points (n = 78). We reported significant differences in the amounts of consumed vegetables and sweets between participants who received 8-10 points (n = 77) and those who received 11-17 points. The higher MDS was significantly associated with the higher intakes of vegetables and dietary fiber. CONCLUSIONS: The dietary patterns of study group of Polish cosmetology students did not adhere to the MD recommendations.

The legitimacy and safety of using alternative diets in cancer.

Alternative diets are used by cancer patients, especially among those who are not treated with conventional methods. Due to worrying data published by the World Health Organisation and its Agenda, the International Agency for Research on Cancer and the International Cancer Union, as well as epidemiological data from all over the world, it has been concluded that cancer will be the main cause of death in the world and that, therefore, the popularity of alternative diets among cancer patients may increase. The paper reviews the scientific literature and assesses the legitimacy and safety of selected alternative diets, as well as the description of research in terms of assumed anticancer efficacy in the following diets: ketogenic, Dr. Budwig and macrobiotic. The article also contains a summary of the analyzed scientific research and conclusions concerning the legitimacy of their use by cancer patients.

Assessment of the glycemic index of groats available on the Polish food market

Background: Glycemic index (GI) and glycemic load (GL) are often used to assess diet quality in relation to the risk of diabetes, cardiovascular diseases and cancer development. Taking into account differences in nutritional value of food products in different countries it is often suggested to used national databases to assess dietary intake in different populations. Objective: To assess the glycemic index and glycemic load of the selected groats available on the Polish food market. Material and methods: GI of the following groats available on the Polish food market was assessed: couscous, buckwheat (roasted) groats, millet groats, spelt groats, barley (hulled) groats and bulgur groats. The GI was assessed as the incremental area under the blood glucose response curve of a 50g carbohydrate portion of a test food expressed as a percent of the response to the same amount of carbohydrate from a standard food taken by the same subject. GL was calculated for the 100 g of the cooked product. Results: The lowest GI was found for buckwheat (34.7±8.2%) and barley (31.3±13.4%) groats. The GL for these groats was 8.1±1.9 and 8.0±3.4, respectively. The GI for millet, spelt and bulgur groats amounted to 56.2±20.6%, 69.8±35.0%, 64.5±36.8%, respectively, while for couscous amounted to 99.0± 36.0%. The highest GL was observed for couscous (24.7±9.0). Conclusions: The groats tested in this study can be classified as follows: barley and buckwheat as a low GI food, millet and bulgur as a medium GI food, spelt and couscous as a high GI food. Buckwheat and barley groats should be chosen the most often among these products, while the intake of couscous should be limited especially by people with diabetes.

Assessment of eating and lifestyle habits among Polish cosmetology and physiotherapy students.

BACKGROUND: Proper nutritional behaviors are one of the most important factors shaping our health, as they influence people's physical and mental state. Good eating habits help prevent many chronic diseases, including cardiovascular disease, type II diabetes, some types of cancer, and osteoporosis. The Polish population aged 20-34 years displays improper nutritional behaviors which may put them at risk of developing diet-dependent diseases in the future. There is a need to assess students' lifestyle, including their eating habits, as it would help adapt already existing education programs. OBJECTIVE: We evaluated and compared eating habits and lifestyle of students studying cosmetology and physiotherapy in association with selected risk factors of civilization diseases. MATERIAL AND METHODS: We used a standardized dietary questionnaire evaluating respondents' physical activity, smoking and dietary habits. The obtained results were compared with the recommendations from the Polish food-based dietary guidelines. We evaluated respondents' nutritional status based on their anthropometric measurements such as body weight, body height, hips and waist circumferences and then we estimated their body mass index (BMI) and waist hip ratio (WHR). RESULTS: Students studying cosmetology and physiotherapy obtained on average 5.3 ±1.5 points based on their compliance with the nutritional recommendations. The academic youth did not meet principles of healthy nutrition according to the given recommendations. There were no significant differences in nutrition status between the faculties, except for products that provide complete protein. CONCLUSIONS: There is a need to increase nutritional awareness of academic youth, especially students of health-related faculties, because better knowledge on nutrition would help them choose healthier food options.

Association between egg consumption and elevated fasting glucose prevalence in relation to dietary patterns in selected group of Polish adults.

BACKGROUND: The safety of high egg intake in view of its impact on glucose metabolism remains inconclusive. The aim of the study was to assess the relationship between egg intake, dietary patterns and elevated fasting glucose (FG) level in a selected group of Polish adults. METHODS: The study group consisted of 1630 adults who participated in the Polish arm of the Prospective Urban Rural Epidemiological Study. Dietary intake, including egg intake, was assessed based on the data from the Additional file 2 Food Frequency Questionnaire previously validated for the population of Lower Silesia. DPs were derived using principal component analysis. FG levels ≥100 mg/dl were considered elevated. Subjects who used antidiabetic drugs were included in the group with elevated FG levels. RESULTS: Egg consumption increased in higher quartiles of "Western" and "traditional" DPs in both men and women (p < 0.0001). In a crude model each 10 g of eggs consumed per day was associated with 7% increased risk (OR 1.07; 95% CI: 1.01-1.15) of elevated glucose level in the overall group and 10% increased risk (OR 1.10; 95% CI: 1.01-1.21) of elevated glucose level in the group of men. Men who consumed at least five eggs per week had higher risk for elevated FG level compared to men who consumed at most one egg per week (OR 1.79; 95% CI 1.13-2.84), but this relationship became insignificant when the data were adjusted for DPs. In the group of women no association between egg intake and elevated FG level was observed. CONCLUSIONS: Higher egg intake may be associated with the overall unhealthy dietary habits, which is why the number of eggs consumed daily should not be considered an independent risk factor for elevated fasting glucose level.

Association between dietary patterns and metabolic syndrome in the selected population of Polish adults-results of the PURE Poland Study.

BACKGROUND: Dietary pattern (DP) analysis is a statistical method used to evaluate the comprehensive effect of the diet on health. The aim of the study was to assess the relationship between DPs derived in selected population of Lower Silesia and the prevalence of metabolic syndrome (MS) and its components. METHODS: Study group consisted of 1634 individuals enrolled in the Prospective Urban and Rural Epidemiological Study Poland. Dietary intake was estimated using the data from the Food Frequency Questionnaire. DPs were identified using principal component analysis. MS prevalence was evaluated based on the criteria accepted by International Diabetes Federation, American Heart Association and National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute in 2009. RESULTS: Three DPs were identified. The percentage of individuals with MS was lower in the upper quartile (Q) of the 'fruit & vegetables' DP in comparison with Q1 (40.4 vs. 48.9%). Inverse relationship was observed for 'Western' (Q4 vs. Q1: 50.7 vs. 40.8%) and 'traditional' DPs (51.0 vs. 38.3%). After adjusting for potential confounders, in Q4 of 'traditional' DP higher risk for central obesity was observed compared to Q1 (OR 1.52; 95% CI: 1.10-2.12). Individuals in Q3 of 'fruit & vegetables' DP had lower risk for raised blood pressure in comparison with the bottom Q (OR 0.54; 95% CI: 0.36-0.82). CONCLUSIONS: DP analysis allows to evaluate the synergistic effect of the diet on the MS prevalence. 'Fruit & vegetables' DP, in contrast to 'Western' and 'traditional' DPs, was negatively associated with the prevalence of MS and its components in the study group.

Significance of low-carbohydrate diets and fasting in patients with cancer

The differences between the metabolism and the physiology of cancer cells and the cells of the human body are assessed and used in most anticancer treatments. These differences encompass, among others, increased glucose metabolism in the changed cells. The aim of the paper was to discuss the results of studies concerning the relationship between lowcarbohydrate diets and fasting and the course of cancer. An inappropriately composed diet consisting of high amounts of simple sugars supplies cancer cells with nutrients, which may impair the effectiveness of cancer patients treatment. Lowcarbohydrate diets may, therefore, constitute an element of supplementary therapy in cancer treatment. The mechanism of low-carbohydrate diets in combination with standard treatment has not been completely explained, though. In initial studies it was proven that patients who were able to continue low-carbohydrate diets showed improvement in health and reduction of tumor mass or its slower growth. Moreover, it was observed that the inability of cancer cells to adapt in new environmental conditions that occur while fasting may have toxic effect on them. Introduction of fasting may sensitize cancer cells to chemotherapy, decrease concentration of growth factors and lead to repair of normal cells. On the other hand, fasting may also promote autophagy and, as can be concluded from the literature, its mechanism may have twofold activity: as a process impacting the survival or death of cancer cells.

Dietary interventions in the treatment of metabolic syndrome as a cardiovascular disease risk-inducing factor. A review

Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is a concept which refers to a simultaneous occurrence of clinically significant cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors that increase the risk of atherosclerosis and type 2 diabetes as well as their vascular complications. The metabolic syndrome is a complex disorder, therefore its treatment should be multifactorial and intensive. MetS occurs due to a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Each of MetS components is a well-known risk factor of atherosclerosis. Such modifications to the lifestyle as increasing physical activity, introducing a well-balanced diet and reducing the body mass are associated with reduced occurrence of MetS and its individual components. It is necessary to implement proper dietary processes, a physical training program and pharmacological treatment. The treatment of MetS should begin with weight loss, which affects the occurrence of abdominal obesity, as well as increased physical activity, leading to an increased tissue sensitivity to insulin. It is recommended to introduce a low-energy, individually balanced diet that will lead to a 7-10% weight loss over the course of 6-12 months. Patients are also advised to quit smoking and limit the consumption of salt and alcohol.

Assessment of nutritional status on the basis of the mini nutritional assessment (MNA) questionnaire in patients on the internal medicine ward

Background: The inadequate nutritional status of hospitalized patients leading to the malnutrition is one of the crucial clinical problems. Objective: The aim of the study was to assess nutritional status of patients on the basis of the mini nutritional assessment (MNA) questionnaire. Material and Methods: The study group included 120 patients staying on the internal medicine ward. The average age for female and male was 65±9.7 and 63±8.4 years, respectively. To assess malnutrition the anthropometric measurements and the MNA questionnaire was conducted. Results: The average MIS (Malnutrition Indicator Score) value in female and male was 25.0 ± 3.0. Among 29% of women and 18.2% of men the risk of malnutrition occurrence was noted. The incorrect values of BMI (body mass index) were observed more frequently in male compared to female (84.0% vs. 67.0%). Incorrect values of the MAC (mid arm circumference) and CC (calf circumference) were found respectively in 6.6 % and 10.5% of female and in 2.3% of male. 55.3% of women and 75% of men declared taking more than 3 prescription drugs a day. In women were observed a significantly higher deficiency of dairy products, meat, fish, or poultry as well as meals containing legume plants or eggs per week compared to men (21.0% vs. 4.5%). An insufficient daily intake of vegetables was declared by 20.4% of men and 15.8% of women. Conclusions: The occurrence of malnutrition or its risk was observed in about a quarter of studied hospitalized patients. The malnutrition was worsened by a reported loss of appetite, a significant number of drugs being taken, and inadequate nutrition among the patients.

Prevalence of Diet Atherogenicity and Coexistence of Lipid Disorders and Arterial Hypertension among 50-year-old Inhabitants of Wroclaw, Poland.

OBJECTIVE: The incorrect composition of a diet, its atherogenicity, is conducive to the occurrence of lipid disorders, arterial hypertension (HTN), diabetes, and metabolic syndrome (MetS). The aim of the study was to evaluate the prevalence of incorrect anthropometric and biochemical parameters as well as diet atherogenicity. METHODS: The study group included 1,520 adults (880 women, 640 men). The nutritional status evaluation was based on respondents' BMI and waist circumference. The diet atherogenicity was estimated using Keys Index (KI) and P/S ratio. Total cholesterol (TCh), LDL cholesterol as well as triglycerides (TG) concentration in blood serum were also evaluated. RESULTS: In 56.8% of women and 60.8% of men waist circumference exceeded referential values. The diets of 71.4% of women and 87.3% of men were atherogenic. HTN was observed in 64.1% of the study population. Hypercholesterolaemia was found in approximately 72% of the respondents. The increased LDL cholesterol concentration were found in 57.5% of women and 64.5% of men. Abnormal concentration of HDL cholesterol occurred among approximately 20% of respondents. Hypertriglyceridaemia was recognised in 26% of women and 44% of men. In the group of women and men with HTN, mean values, i.e. BMI, waist circumference and TG (with TCh concentration additionally noted in men) were found as significant. Normal lipid profile and arterial pressure values were observed in 6.6% of the population. CONCLUSIONS: In the diets of men with HTN were observed higher values of KI compared to group without HTN. No significant differences were found in the frequency of occurrence of the analysed parameters either among the group of women with HTN or without it. In the group of men with HTN, the abnormal BMI, waist circumference and TG occurred more frequently.

The role of macronutrient intake in reducing the risk of obesity and overweight among carriers of different polymorphisms of FTO gene. A review

Obesity is a growing problem worldwide. The risk of the excessive body weight occurrence is a multifactorial issue. Environmental factors, lifestyle habits, diet, physical activity level, as well as genetic predisposition can increase obesity risk. One of the genes studied ­ the FTO gene - plays a crucial role in obesity occurrence. Individuals who carry risk alleles of specific single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) have a greater risk of being overweight. Recent studies revealed that specific macronutrient diet composition can influence differently on the FTO expression. The aim of this article is to review the recent literature on the topic of the FTO gene, its influence on overweight and obesity prevalence and the role of diet in modifying its impact on the risk of the excessive body weight occurrence. There are not many studies focusing on the dietary intervention influence on the FTO gene expression. As far as it has been researched it seems that the proper dietary habits can modify the FTO gene risk allele influence on obesity susceptibility.

Dietary habits of Wroclaw Medical University students (Poland)

Background: The World Health Organization considers an unhealthy diet to be related to the risk of cardiovascular diseases development. Objectives: The aim of this study was to evaluate dietary habits among Wroclaw Medical University students with a view towards the nutritional risk factors for cardiovascular diseases. Material and Methods: The study was conducted between the years 2004-2012. The study group consisted of 892 women and 276 men. The respondents were asked to complete a questionnaire based on the principles outlined in "The Polish food-based dietary guidelines". Results: There were numerous eating habits not in compliance with the recommendations. Men failed to take ≥ 3 meals/ day (10.1% vs 6.3%) at a significantly higher frequency than women. Food products exhibiting a high glycaemic index (GI) were preferred over low GI, especially among men. About 62% of women and 75% of men failed to consume ≥ 5 portions of fruits and vegetables per day. Women chose low-fat dairy products and meat significantly more frequently than men. 73% of women and 67% of men declared that they consumed vegetable oils on an irregular basis. About 8% of women and 11% of men used salt without restrictions, while 58% and 64% respectively, used sugar to sweeten beverages. Conclusions: Improper nutritional habits were observed in a high part of the studied students, especially among men. It is therefore strongly suggested that the rules of proper nutrition be promoted among this group.

Comparison of nutritional value of "fruit and vegetables" and "western" dietary patterns identified in a group of cancer patients

Background: Dietary patterns (DPs) are defined as the amounts, types and combinations of various food products in habitual diets and the frequency of their consumption. Dietary pattern analysis is usually performed in order to assess the combined effect of consumed food products on health Objective: The aim of the study was to assess and compare the nutritional value of dietary patterns identified in a group of patients staying on the oncological ward Material and methods: The study group consisted of 100 patients (51 women and 49 men) aged 19-83 years. Dietary intake was assessed using a food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) validated for the population of Lower Silesian Voivodeship Results: Factor analysis identified two main dietary patterns explaining 25.6% of variance. The "fruit and vegetables" DP consisted of vegetables, fruits, juices, unrefined grains and nuts, seeds and raisins. Instead, the "Western" DP was characterized by the consumption of high-fat and processed meat and poultry, fried fish, refined grains, honey and sugar, fats, sweets, beverages and chips. While higher scores for "fruit and vegetables" pattern were associated with increased intake of dietary fiber, antioxidant vitamins, folic acid and decreased glycemic load per 1000 kcal and sodium intake, for "Western" pattern observed relationships were opposite. Women were more likely to have higher factor scores for "fruit and vegetables" DP and lower factor scores for "Western" DP than men Conclusions: Dietary patterns identified in the study group differed in terms of nutritional value, in spite of similar macronutrient content in the diet. "Western" DP was characterized by lower nutritional value than "fruit and vegetables" dietary pattern.

Glycemic load and carbohydrates content in the diets of cancer patients

Background: Glycemic load (GL) is used to evaluate how various food products affect blood sugar level. According to some studies, high dietary GL may increase the risk of cancer development and recurrence. Objective: The aim of the study was to assess dietary glycemic load and intake of carbohydrates derived from various food products by patients staying on an oncological ward. Material and methods: The study group included 100 cancer patients aged 19-83 years (59.6 ± 11.3 years). GL, energy and nutrient intake was estimated based on the data from the Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ). The correlations between dietary GL and consumption of 18 groups of products were assessed. Results: The average GL per 1000 kcal was 61.0 ± 8.6 g in the diets of men and 56.2 ± 9.5 g in the diets of women. High GL (>120 g) was observed in 76% of analyzed diets. The diets of men had higher GL, energy and sucrose content than the diets of women. Men, in comparison to women, consumed more refined grain products (144.1 ± 78.2 g vs. 95.5 ± 67.8 g), beverages (236.4 ± 344.7 g vs. 69.2 ± 173.0 g), honey and sugar (28.0 ± 22.2 g vs. 16.7 ± 18.0 g), dark chocolate (4.5 ± 4.5 g vs. 3.9 ± 6.7 g), sweets (66.1 ± 56.6 g vs. 38.8 ± 39.5 g) and soups (313.3 ± 105.3 g vs. 260.8 ± 160.3 g). Conclusions: Analyzed diets were characterized by high GL and simple sugars content. Men consumed more refined and sweetened products than women. The improvement of knowledge about proper nutrition is needed in studied group of cancer patients.

Assessment of glycemic load and intake of carbohydrates in the diet of Wroclaw Medical University students (Poland).

BACKGROUND: Glycemic Load (GL) is one of the indicators that can be used to assess the nutritional value of the diet. The results of numerous studies have shown that high glycemic index and/or high GL diets were associated with increased risk for type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease and cancer. OBJECTIVES: The aim of the study was to evaluate dietary GL, intake of food products which are source of carbohydrates and contribution of particular carbohydrates in students' diets. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The study group consisted of 140 female students from Wroclaw (Poland) aged 21±1.6 years. The dietary assessment was performed using food frequency-questionnaire. The GL of daily food ration (DFR) was considered low for values <80 g, medium for values between 80-120 g and high for values >120 g. RESULTS: The mean GL of the diets was 120.7±42 g. DFR of 12.1% of the students had low GL, 46.6% - medium, and 39.3% - high. Diets in the 4th quartile of GL were characterized by the highest energy value, total carbohydrate, sucrose, starch and fiber content and energy contribution from carbohydrates when compared with lower quartiles. Higher percentage of energy from protein and fats in the diets was related with lower dietary GL. The highest correlation coefficient between GL and weight of the consumed food was observed for sweets (r=0.67), cereal products (r=0.52), juices and sweetened beverages (r=0.50), vegetables (r=0.45) and fruits (r=0.44). In the study, cereal products, fruits, sweets, vegetables and juices and sweetened beverages consumed by the female subjects constituted respectively 26.6%, 12.8%, 11.4%, 9.1% and 8.8% of the total dietary GL. CONCLUSIONS: Lower dietary GL in the female students participating in the study can be achieved by limiting the intake of sweets and sweet beverages as well as consuming cereal products with a low GI. KEY WORDS: glycemic index, glycemic load, carbohydrates, students, diet.

[Metabolic disorders and nutritional status in autoimmune thyroid diseases].

In recent years, the authors of epidemiological studies have documented that autoimmune diseases are a major problem of modern society and are classified as diseases of civilization. Autoimmune thyroid diseases (ATDs) are caused by an abnormal immune response to autoantigens present in the thyroid gland - they often coexist with other autoimmune diseases. The most common dysfunctions of the thyroid gland are hypothyroidism, Graves-Basedow disease and Hashimoto's disease. Hashimoto's thyroiditis can be the main cause of primary hypothyroidism of the thyroid gland. Anthropometric, biochemical and physicochemical parameters are used to assess the nutritional status during the diagnosis and treatment of thyroid diseases. Patients with hypothyroidism are often obese, whereas patients with hyperthyroidism are often afflicted with rapid weight loss. The consequence of obesity is a change of the thyroid hormones' activity; however, weight reduction leads to their normalization. The activity and metabolic rate of thyroid hormones are modifiable. ATDs are associated with abnormalities of glucose metabolism and thus increased risk of developing diabetes mellitus type 1 and type 2. Celiac disease (CD) also increases the risk of developing other autoimmune diseases. Malnutrition or the presence of numerous nutritional deficiencies in a patient's body can be the cause of thyroid disorders. Coexisting deficiencies of such elements as iodine, iron, selenium and zinc may impair the function of the thyroid gland. Other nutrient deficiencies usually observed in patients suffering from ATD are: protein deficiencies, vitamin deficiencies (A, C, B6, B5, B1) and mineral deficiencies (phosphorus, magnesium, potassium, sodium, chromium). Proper diet helps to reduce the symptoms of the disease, maintains a healthy weight and prevents the occurrence of malnutrition. This article presents an overview of selected documented studies and scientific reports on the relationship of metabolic disorders and nutritional status with the occurrence of ATD.

[The role of diet in multiple sclerosis]. / Rola diety w stwardnieniu rozsianym.

Multiple sclerosis is a demyelinating disease of the central nervous system, occurs most commonly in adults between 20 and 40 years of age. Etiology of this disease is still not known, and one of the analyzed environmental factors is food. In this study, based on literature, discusses the impact of dietary intake of food on the occurrence and development of the disease. This study demonstrated that patients with multiple sclerosis less than healthy people ate bread and cereal products, fish, some vegetables and fruits. While patients often consumed an animal products, whole milk and sweets. It also discusses Swank's diet, which suggest that the severity of symptoms disease may be responsible food of animal origin, which is rich in saturated fatty acids. The author found that patients who comply a diet, after 34 years of application, the risk of death due to multiple sclerosis was three times lower than in those who have not complied with all the dietary recommendations. Moreover, research demonstrated a correlation between deficiency of omega-3, vitamin D, B12, antioxidant vitamins and folic acid in diet, and the development and exacerbation of symptoms of multiple sclerosis. Results of research concerning the relationship between dietary factors and the occurrence and development of this disease are inconclusive why the need is greater the amount thereof in this field. Patients may consider using a diet or supplements, if pharmacotherapy and other alternative and complementary methods do not bring expected effects.