Sexual Dimorphism in the Architectural Design of Rat and Human Pelvic Floor Muscles.

Skeletal muscle architecture is a strong predictor of in vivo functional capacity and is evaluated in fixed tissues, accommodating the study of human muscles from cadaveric donors. Previous studies evaluating the pelvic floor muscles (PFMs) demonstrated that the rat is the most appropriate small animal model for the study of female PFM architecture, but the rat's suitability for the study of male PFMs is undetermined. We aimed to determine (1) whether PFM architecture exhibits sexual dimorphism in rats or humans, and (2) if the rat is also a suitable animal model for the study of male human PFMs. PFMs were fixed in situ and harvested en bloc from male and female cadaveric donors and 3-month-old male and female Sprague-Dawley rats. Three architectural parameters influenced by species size were used to compare male versus female PFMs within species, while four size-independent measures compared species within sex. All comparisons were made with two-way analysis of variances and Tukey's multiple comparisons tests post hoc. Sarcomere length (rats and humans, p = 0.016 and = 0.002) and normalized fiber length (rats, p < 0.001) were significantly larger in male PFMs. Three of the size-independent measures exhibited similar species trends in both sexes, while the size-independent sarcomere length measure (Ls/Lso) differed between male rats and humans (p < 0.001). Thus, sexual dimorphism is present in rat and human PFM architecture, and the male rat is suitable for studies of human male PFMs.

An evidence-based microscopic hematuria care pathway optimizes decision-making among providers.

INTRODUCTION AND HYPOTHESIS: Microscopic hematuria (MH) has many etiologies in women and requires specific gynecologic evaluation. We created a standardized MH pathway to serve as an evidence-based decision aid for providers in our practice. METHODS: Using a modified Delphi process, a multidisciplinary team reviewed existing guidelines for MH diagnosis and treatment to reach consensus on care pathway components. RESULTS: Entry into the care pathway by an advanced practice provider is determined by the finding of ≥3 red blood cells per high-power field (RBC/HPF) on microscopic urinalysis. Initial evaluation includes history and physical exam. If there are signs of a gynecologic cause of MH, the conditions are treated and repeat urinalysis is performed in 6 months. If repeat urinalysis shows persistent MH or there are no other apparent causes for MH, we proceed with risk stratification. Through shared decision-making, low-risk patients may undergo repeat urinalysis in 6 months or cystoscopy with urinary tract ultrasound. For intermediate-risk patients, cystoscopy and urinary tract ultrasound are recommended. For high-risk patients, cystoscopy and axial upper urinary tract imaging are recommended. If evaluation is positive, urology referral is provided. If evaluation is negative, low-risk patients are released from care, but intermediate-risk or high-risk patients undergo repeat urinalysis in 12 months. If repeat urinalysis is positive, shared decision-making is used to determine a plan. CONCLUSIONS: We developed an MH care pathway to standardize care of women with MH across a multidisciplinary group. This pathway serves as a component of value-based care and supports evidence-based care by providers.

Mechanisms governing protective pregnancy-induced adaptations of the pelvic floor muscles in the rat preclinical model.

BACKGROUND: The intrinsic properties of pelvic soft tissues in women who do and do not sustain birth injuries are likely divergent. However, little is known about this. Rat pelvic floor muscles undergo protective pregnancy-induced structural adaptations-sarcomerogenesis and increase in intramuscular collagen content-that protect against birth injury. OBJECTIVE: We aimed to test the following hypotheses: (1) the increased mechanical load of a gravid uterus drives antepartum adaptations; (2) load-induced changes are sufficient to protect pelvic muscles from birth injury. STUDY DESIGN: The independent effects of load uncoupled from the hormonal milieu of pregnancy were tested in 3- to 4-month-old Sprague-Dawley rats randomly divided into the following 4 groups, with N of 5 to 14 per group: (1) load-/pregnancy hormones- (controls), (2) load+/pregnancy hormones-, (3) reduced load/pregnancy hormones+, and (4) load+/pregnancy hormones+. Mechanical load of a gravid uterus was simulated by weighing uterine horns with beads similar to fetal rat size and weight. A reduced load was achieved by unilateral pregnancy after unilateral uterine horn ligation. To assess the acute and chronic phases required for sarcomerogenesis, the rats were sacrificed at 4 hours or 21 days after bead loading. The coccygeus, iliocaudalis, pubocaudalis, and nonpelvic tibialis anterior musles were harvested for myofiber and sarcomere length measurements. The intramuscular collagen content was assessed using a hydroxyproline assay. An additional 20 load+/pregnancy hormones- rats underwent vaginal distention to determine whether the load-induced changes are sufficient to protect from mechanical muscle injury in response to parturition-associated strains of various magnitude. The data, compared using 2-way repeated measures analysis of variance followed by pairwise comparisons, are presented as mean±standard error of mean. RESULTS: An acute increase in load resulted in significant pelvic floor muscle stretch, accompanied by an acute increase in sarcomere length compared with nonloaded control muscles (coccygeus: 2.69±0.03 vs 2.30±0.06 µm, respectively, P<.001; pubocaudalis: 2.71±0.04 vs 2.25±0.03 µm, respectively, P<.0001; and iliocaudalis: 2.80±0.06 vs 2.35±0.04 µm, respectively, P<.0001). After 21 days of sustained load, the sarcomeres returned to operational length in all pelvic muscles (P>.05). However, the myofibers remained significantly longer in the load+/pregnancy hormones- than the load-/pregnancy hormones- in coccygeus (13.33±0.94 vs 9.97±0.26 mm, respectively, P<.0001) and pubocaudalis (21.20±0.52 vs 19.52±0.34 mm, respectively, P<.04) and not different from load+/pregnancy hormones+ (12.82±0.30 and 22.53±0.32 mm, respectively, P>.1), indicating that sustained load-induced sarcomerogenesis in these muscles. The intramuscular collagen content in the load+/pregnancy hormones- group was significantly greater relative to the controls in coccygeus (6.55±0.85 vs 3.11±0.47 µg/mg, respectively, P<.001) and pubocaudalis (5.93±0.79 vs 3.46±0.52 µg/mg, respectively, P<.05) and not different from load+/pregnancy hormones+ (7.45±0.65 and 6.05±0.62 µg/mg, respectively, P>.5). The iliocaudalis required both mechanical and endocrine cues for sarcomerogenesis. The tibialis anterior was not affected by mechanical or endocrine alterations. Despite an equivalent extent of adaptations, load-induced changes were only partially protective against sarcomere hyperelongation. CONCLUSION: Load induces plasticity of the intrinsic pelvic floor muscle components, which renders protection against mechanical birth injury. The protective effect, which varies between the individual muscles and strain magnitudes, is further augmented by the presence of pregnancy hormones. Maximizing the impact of mechanical load on the pelvic floor muscles during pregnancy, such as with specialized pelvic floor muscle stretching regimens, is a potentially actionable target for augmenting pregnancy-induced adaptations to decrease birth injury in women who may otherwise have incomplete antepartum muscle adaptations.

Vesicovaginal Fistula Repair Simulation Model and Hierarchical Task Analysis.

IMPORTANCE: There is a need for surgeons skilled in vesicovaginal fistula (VVF) repair, yet training opportunities are limited. OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to create a low-fidelity simulation model for transvaginal VVF repair, identify essential steps of VVF repair, and evaluate the model's ability to replicate essential steps. STUDY DESIGN: First, a low-fidelity VVF repair simulation model was designed and built by the authors. Next, a hierarchical task analysis was performed by urogynecologic surgeons with expertise in VVF repair. Each expert submitted an outline of tasks required to perform VVF repair. To control for bias, an education specialist de-identified, reviewed, and collated the submitted outlines. The education specialist then led a focus group, and through a modified Delphi process, the experts reached consensus on the essential steps. A separate group of urogynecologic surgeons then tested the model and completed an anonymous questionnaire assessing how well the model replicated the essential steps. Descriptive analyses were performed. RESULTS: Five experts submitted an outline of steps for transvaginal VVF repair, and 4 experts participated in a focus group to reach consensus on the essential steps. Nine urogynecologic surgeons, with a median of 10 years in practice (interquartile range, 7-12 years), tested the model and completed the postsimulation questionnaire. Most testers thought that tasks involving identification and closure of the fistula were replicated by the model. Testers thought that tasks involving cystoscopy or bladder filling were not replicated by the model. CONCLUSIONS: We developed a novel, low-fidelity transvaginal VVF repair simulation model that consistently replicated tasks involving identification and closure of the fistula.

Impact of the Duration of the Second Stage of Labor on Postpartum Pelvic Floor Symptoms.

IMPORTANCE: The associated effect of duration of the second stage of labor (SSL) on pelvic floor symptoms development is not well studied. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to examine the association between duration of SSL and pelvic floor symptoms at 6 months postpartum among primiparous women. STUDY DESIGN: A planned secondary analysis of a multicenter randomized trial evaluating the impact of immediate versus delayed pushing on vaginal delivery rates, maternal morbidity, and neonatal outcomes was conducted between 2014 and 2018. For pelvic floor arm participants, demographic, pelvic examination, and validated questionnaire data were collected postpartum. Primary outcome was change in Pelvic Floor Distress Inventory 20 (PFDI-20) score from immediate to 6 months postpartum. Secondary outcomes included changes in the Pelvic Floor Impact Questionnaire, Fecal Incontinence Severity Index, Modified Manchester Health Questionnaire scores, and Pelvic Organ Prolapse Quantification measurements at 6 months postpartum. Participants were analyzed by SSL duration ≤60 minutes or >60 minutes. RESULTS: Of the 2,414 trial participants, 767 (32%) completed pelvic floor assessments at 6 months. Pelvic Floor Distress Inventory 20 scores significantly improved at 6 months in the ≤60 minutes SSL group compared with >60 minutes SSL (-14.3 ± 48.0 and -3.2 ± 45.3, respectively; P = 0.04). Changes from immediate postpartum in total and subscale scores for other questionnaires at 6 months did not differ between groups. Prolapse stage did not differ between groups. Perineal body was significantly shorter in the >60 minutes SSL group (3.7 ± 0.7, 3.5 ± 0.8; P = 0.03). CONCLUSIONS: Women with SSL >60 minutes experience less improvement in PFDI-20 scores at 6 months. Greater tissue and innervation trauma in those with SSL >60 minutes may explain persistently less improvement in PFDI-20 scores.

Intraoperative Gentamicin Intravesical Instillation for Prevention of Urinary Tract Infection After Urogynecologic Surgery: A Randomized Controlled Trial.

IMPORTANCE: Currently available evidence for efficacy of postoperative antibiotics to prevent postoperative urinary tract infection (UTI) conflicts. Oral antibiotics rely on patient adherence and can cause unwanted systemic effects. Gentamicin is a broad-spectrum antibiotic with rapid bactericidal activity and, when administered intravesically, has no systemic absorption through intact urothelium. OBJECTIVE: We aimed to determine whether a single intravesical instillation of gentamicin at the conclusion of urogynecologic surgery would reduce the proportion of women treated for UTI within 6 weeks postoperatively compared with sham instillation. STUDY DESIGN: This was a multicenter, randomized (stratified by study site, route of prolapse repair ±suburethral sling, with balanced 1:1 randomization), participant-masked, sham-controlled, study. The primary outcome was the proportion of participants treated with antibiotics for UTI within 6 weeks postoperatively. An adjusted multivariable logistic regression model was constructed to determine predictors of postoperative UTI treatment. RESULTS: Three hundred seventy participants were randomized (gentamicin, 185; sham, 185), and data from 363 participants were analyzed (gentamicin, 183; sham, 180). Nineteen women in the gentamicin group and 20 women in the sham group were treated for UTI within 6 weeks postoperatively (10.4% vs 11.1%, P = 0.87). There were no adverse events related to the instillations. Increasing age (odds ratio, 1.028 [1.000-1.057]) and number of intraoperative transurethral instrumentations (odds ratio, 1.342 [1.080-1.668]) were independent predictors of postoperative UTI treatment. CONCLUSIONS: In women undergoing urogynecologic surgery, postoperative intravesical gentamicin did not reduce the incidence of postoperative UTI. The number of intraoperative transurethral instrumentations is an important, potentially modifiable risk factor for postoperative UTI treatment.

Laparoscopic Outcomes for Pelvic Pathology in Children and Adolescents among Patients Presenting to the Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology Service.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to evaluate surgical indications, outcomes, and common pelvic pathologies presenting to the Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology service in premenarcheal (PMF) and menarcheal females (MF) undergoing laparoscopic surgery. DESIGN: A retrospective chart review. SETTING: An academic children's hospital. PARTICIPANTS: Females under 21 years of age, excluding pregnant patients, who underwent laparoscopic surgery for a gynecologic indication presenting to the Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology service at a single children's hospital between July 2007 and January 2012, identified by CPT codes. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Pertinent patient demographics, indication for surgery, anesthesia time, estimated blood loss, surgical instruments used, intra-operative findings, surgical pathology, complications, length of stay, and concerns at follow-up appointment. Descriptive statistics and chi-square analyses of data were performed using SAS 9.3. RESULTS: Of 158 cases meeting inclusion criteria, 33 patients were PMF (mean age 8.6 ± 3.2 years) and 125 patients were MF (mean age 14.7 ± 2.3 years). Acute abdominal pain was the most common surgical indication in both groups, but was significantly more likely to be the surgical indication in the PMF group (62.7% vs. 52.8%, P = .006). Adnexal torsion was more likely to be present in the PMF group than in the MF group (66.7% vs. 27.2%, P < .0001). No complications were reported in the PMF group. Two minor complications were reported in the MF group. CONCLUSION: Minimally invasive surgical techniques represent a safe and well-tolerated method for treating a wide variety of pelvic pathology in both younger children and older adolescent females. For physicians evaluating premenarcheal females with acute-onset abdominal pain, adnexal torsion should be prominent among the differential diagnoses.