Impact of hypoalbuminemia on clinical outcomes among patients with obesity treated with ceftriaxone.

The use of ceftriaxone, a highly protein-bound drug, in the setting of hypoalbuminemia may result in suboptimal drug exposure. Patients with obesity also exhibit higher absolute drug clearance. We aimed to evaluate the impact of hypoalbuminemia on clinical success among hospitalized adults with obesity who were treated with ceftriaxone. This retrospective review included adult inpatients with weight >100 kg or body mass index >40 kg/m2 who received ceftriaxone 2 g intravenously every 12 hours for at least 72 hours. The primary outcome was clinical success, a composite of clinical cure and microbiologic cure. Secondary outcomes included clinical cure, microbiologic cure, length of stay, ICU length of stay, mortality, 30-day readmission, and adverse events. In all, 137 patients were included, 34 of whom had a serum albumin of ≤2.5 g/dL. In a propensity-score-weighted analysis, clinical success was significantly more common among those without hypoalbuminemia (91.2%) as compared to those with hypoalbuminemia (77.8%) (P = 0.038). Death within 30 days (13.7% vs 0%, P < 0.001) and 30-day readmission (31.6% vs 12.0%, P = 0.008) were more common in the hypoalbuminemia group. In a univariate analysis, serum albumin and indication for ceftriaxone use were found to be predictors of clinical success. Hypoalbuminemia was associated with a lower rate of clinical success among patients with obesity who were treated with ceftriaxone 2 g every 12 hours.

Machine learning for adverse event prediction in outpatient parenteral antimicrobial therapy: a scoping review.

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to conduct a scoping review of machine learning (ML) techniques in outpatient parenteral antimicrobial therapy (OPAT) for predicting adverse outcomes and to evaluate their validation, implementation and potential barriers to adoption. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This scoping review included studies applying ML algorithms to adult OPAT patients, covering techniques from logistic regression to neural networks. Outcomes considered were medication intolerance, toxicity, catheter complications, hospital readmission and patient deterioration. A comprehensive search was conducted across databases including Cochrane Central, Cochrane Reviews, Embase, Ovid MEDLINE and Scopus, from 1 January 2000 to 1 January 2024. RESULTS: Thirty-two studies met the inclusion criteria, with the majority being single-centre experiences primarily from North America. Most studies focused on developing new ML models to predict outcomes such as hospital readmissions and medication-related complications. However, there was very little reporting on the performance characteristics of these models, such as specificity, sensitivity and C-statistics. There was a lack of multi-centre or cross-centre validation, limiting generalizability. Few studies advanced beyond traditional logistic regression models, and integration into clinical practice remains limited. DISCUSSION: ML shows promise for enhancing OPAT outcomes by predicting adverse events and enabling pre-emptive interventions. Despite this potential, significant gaps exist in development, validation and practical implementation. Barriers include the need for representative data sets and broadly applicable, validated models. CONCLUSION: Future research should address these barriers to fully leverage ML's potential in optimizing OPAT care and patient safety. Models must deliver timely, accurate and actionable insights to improve adverse event prediction and prevention in OPAT settings.

Use of the DMAIC Lean Six Sigma quality improvement framework to improve beta-lactam antibiotic adequacy in the critically ill.

Beta-lactam antibiotics are widely used in the intensive care unit due to their favorable effectiveness and safety profiles. Beta-lactams given to patients with sepsis must be delivered as soon as possible after infection recognition (early), treat the suspected organism (appropriate), and be administered at a dose that eradicates the infection (adequate). Early and appropriate antibiotic delivery occurs in >90% of patients, but less than half of patients with sepsis achieve adequate antibiotic exposure. This project aimed to address this quality gap and improve beta-lactam adequacy using the Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve, and Control Lean Six Sigma quality improvement framework. A multidisciplinary steering committee was formed, which completed a stakeholder analysis to define the gap in practice. An Ishikawa cause and effect (Fishbone) diagram was used to identify the root causes and an impact/effort grid facilitated prioritization of interventions. An intervention that included bundled education with the use of therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM; i.e. drug-level testing) was projected to have the highest impact relative to the amount of effort and selected to address beta-lactam inadequacy in the critically ill. The education and TDM intervention were deployed through a Plan, Do, Study, Act cycle. In the 3 months after "go-live," 54 episodes of beta-lactam TDM occurred in 41 unique intensive care unit patients. The primary quality metric of beta-lactam adequacy was achieved in 94% of individuals after the intervention. Ninety-four percent of clinicians gauged the education provided as sufficient. The primary counterbalance of antimicrobial days of therapy, a core antimicrobial stewardship metric, was unchanged over time (favorable result; P = .73). Application of the Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve, and Control Lean Six Sigma quality improvement framework effectively improved beta-lactam adequacy in critically ill patients. The approach taken in this quality improvement project is widely generalizable to other drugs, drug classes, or settings to increase the adequacy of drug exposure.

Association of adverse effects with high serum posaconazole concentrations.

Posaconazole therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) is widely utilized to assess therapeutic efficacy and safety; however, clinical effects of very high serum concentrations are unknown. A retrospective review of 90 patients receiving posaconazole for treatment or prophylaxis of invasive fungal infections with serum concentrations ≥3000 ng/mL from 1/1/2019 to 4/30/2021 evaluated the incidence and type of adverse drug reactions (ADRs). Symptomatic ADRs were very common in patients with posaconazole concentrations of ≥5000 ng/mL and 3000-4999 ng/mL (80% vs. 58.8%; P = 0.31). Posaconazole TDM should be performed for both treatment and prophylaxis indications and dose decrease for serum concentrations >3000 ng/mL should be considered.

Drug level monitoring is commonly used to evaluate appropriate dosing and effectiveness of posaconazole, a medication used to treat fungal infections. Patients with high levels commonly had side effects. Posaconazole monitoring should be completed, and doses reduced when levels are high.

Why is the Implementation of Beta-Lactam Therapeutic Drug Monitoring for the Critically Ill Falling Short? A Multicenter Mixed-Methods Study.

BACKGROUND: Beta-lactam therapeutic drug monitoring (BL TDM; drug level testing) can facilitate improved outcomes in critically ill patients. However, only 10%-20% of hospitals have implemented BL TDM. This study aimed to characterize provider perceptions and key considerations for successfully implementing BL TDM. METHODS: This was a sequential mixed-methods study from 2020 to 2021 of diverse stakeholders at 3 academic medical centers with varying degrees of BL TDM implementation (not implemented, partially implemented, and fully implemented). Stakeholders were surveyed, and a proportion of participants completed semistructured interviews. Themes were identified, and findings were contextualized with implementation science frameworks. RESULTS: Most of the 138 survey respondents perceived that BL TDM was relevant to their practice and improved medication effectiveness and safety. Integrated with interview data from 30 individuals, 2 implementation themes were identified: individual internalization and organizational features. Individuals needed to internalize, make sense of, and agree to BL TDM implementation, which was positively influenced by repeated exposure to evidence and expertise. The process of internalization appeared more complex with BL TDM than with other antibiotics (ie, vancomycin). Organizational considerations relevant to BL TDM implementation (eg, infrastructure, personnel) were similar to those identified in other TDM settings. CONCLUSIONS: Broad enthusiasm for BL TDM among participants was found. Prior literature suggested that assay availability was the primary barrier to implementation; however, the data revealed many more individual and organizational attributes, which impacted the BL TDM implementation. Internalization should particularly be focused on to improve the adoption of this evidence-based practice.

Evaluating antimicrobial duration for Gram-negative bacteremia in patients with neutropenia due to hematologic malignancy or hematopoietic stem cell transplantation.

BACKGROUND: In the management of Gram-negative bloodstream infection (GN-BSI), short antimicrobial courses have been increasingly demonstrated to be non-inferior to prolonged therapy, with lower risk of Clostridioides difficile infection (CDI) and emergence of multi-drug resistant (MDR) organisms. However, immunocompromised hosts were excluded from these studies. We investigated outcomes of short (≤10 days), intermediate (11-14 days), and prolonged (≥15 days) antimicrobial durations for GN-BSI in neutropenic patients. METHODS: A retrospective cohort study was conducted on neutropenic patients with monomicrobial GN-BSI between 2018 and 2022. The primary outcome was a composite of all-cause mortality and microbiologic relapse within 90 days after therapy completion. The secondary outcome was a composite of 90-day CDI and development of MDR-GN bacteria. Cox regression analysis with propensity score (PS) adjustment was used to compare outcomes between the three groups. RESULTS: A total of 206 patients were classified into short (n = 67), intermediate (n = 81), or prolonged (n = 58) duration. Neutropenia was predominantly secondary to hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (48%) or hematologic malignancy (35%). The primary sources of infection included intra-abdominal (51%), vascular catheter (27%), and urinary (8%). Most patients received definitive therapy with cefepime or carbapenem. No significant difference in the primary composite endpoint was observed for intermediate versus short (PS-adjusted hazard ratio [aHR] 0.89; 95% confidence interval [95% CI] 0.39-2.03) or prolonged versus short therapy (PS-aHR 1.20; 95% CI 0.52-2.74). There was no significant difference in the secondary composite endpoint of CDI or MDR-GN emergence. CONCLUSION: Our data suggest that short antimicrobial courses had comparable 90-day outcomes as intermediate and prolonged regimens for GN-BSI among immunocompromised patients with neutropenia.

Does metabolite matter? Defining target itraconazole and hydroxy-itraconazole serum concentrations for blastomycosis.

BACKGROUND: Itraconazole is the recommended first-line treatment for mild-to-moderate blastomycosis and consolidation treatment of moderate-to-severe disease. Itraconazole is metabolised into three metabolites, including an active metabolite hydroxy-itraconazole. Literature provides little evidence indicating whether therapeutic drug monitoring targets should be based on itraconazole parent compound alone or a sum of itraconazole and hydroxy-itraconazole serum concentrations. OBJECTIVES: This study aims to compare clinical outcomes and adverse drug events (ADEs) of combined itraconazole and hydroxy-itraconazole concentrations versus itraconazole parent compound alone in patients with blastomycosis. PATIENTS/METHODS: This study was a retrospective cohort review of patients ≥18 years with probable or proven Blastomyces infection who received itraconazole with at least one documented serum itraconazole concentration. The primary outcome was rate of partial or complete treatment response across three patient groups: (1) Itraconazole parent compound >1.0 mcg/ml (parent), (2) parent compound <1.0 mcg/ml, but a combined itraconazole and hydroxy-itraconazole >1.0 mcg/ml (combined) and (3) failure to achieve a combined or parent concentration >1.0 mcg/ml (subtherapeutic) for >75% of the duration of itraconazole therapy. RESULTS: A total of 80 patients were included (parent = 32, combined = 36, subtherapeutic = 12). No statistically significant difference was observed for rate of partial or complete treatment response (97% parent vs 94% combined, p = .99). Significantly higher mortality due to blastomycosis was observed in patients in the subtherapeutic group (0% parent vs 3% combined vs 25% subtherapeutic, p = .01). CONCLUSIONS: This study supports an itraconazole therapeutic target combining itraconazole and hydroxy-itraconazole >1.0 mcg/ml for blastomycosis treatment.

Call to Pharmacists: End Use of "Red Man Syndrome".

Red Man Syndrome is a term used for an adverse event attributed to vancomycin infusion. Based on the presentation within white patients, the term is imprecise at best and can lead to suboptimal classification and management. Recent calls have advocated for the discontinuation of the use of this terminology. Pharmacists should take the lead in advocating for this change.

Safety and Tolerability of Fluoroquinolones in Patients with Staphylococcal Periprosthetic Joint Infections.

BACKGROUND: Fluoroquinolones (FQs) are known to be accompanied by significant risks. However, the incidence of adverse events (ADEs) resulting in unplanned drug discontinuation when used for periprosthetic joint infections (PJIs) is currently unknown. METHODS: This study included 156 patients over the age of 18 treated for staphylococcal PJI with debridement, antibiotics, and implant retention between 1 January 2007 and 21 November 2019. Of the 156 patients, 64 had total hip arthroplasty (THA) and 92 had total knee arthroplasty (TKA) infections. The primary outcome was rate of unplanned drug discontinuation. Secondary outcomes included incidence of severe ADEs, unplanned rifamycin discontinuation, mean time to unplanned regimen discontinuation, and all-cause mortality. RESULTS: Overall, unplanned drug discontinuation occurred in 35.6% of patients in the FQ group and 3% of patients in the non-FQ group. The rate of unplanned discontinuation of FQ regimens as compared with non-FQ regimens was 27.5% vs 4.2% (P = .021) in THA infections and 42% vs 2.4% (P < .001) in TKA infections. There was no significant difference in severe ADEs between FQ and non-FQ regimens in both THA and TKA infections. The overall rate of nonsevere ADEs in FQ compared with non-FQ regimens was 43.3% vs 6.1% (P < .001). FQs were associated with tendinopathy, myalgia, arthralgia, and nausea. CONCLUSIONS: A significantly higher rate of unplanned drug discontinuation was associated with FQ as compared with non-FQ regimens. This provides a real-world view of the implications of FQ-related ADEs on unplanned discontinuation when used in prolonged durations for the management of staphylococcal PJIs.

Unexpected Vancomycin Pharmacokinetic Profile Secondary to Macromolecular Complexing: A Case Series.

BACKGROUND: The optimal dosing and monitoring of vancomycin has been largely debated for decades, with key guideline changes for recommended monitoring in 2009 and 2020. Current and past practices for pharmacokinetic dose optimization use serum drug assays to guide dose adjustment to effectively balance efficacy and the risks of toxicity. These assays detect both bound and unbound serum concentrations. Vancomycin is believed to be 50%-55% protein bound in most cases; however, some variability in this parameter has been previously published. The authors report 2 cases of abnormal vancomycin pharmacokinetics discovered based on unexpected serum levels during routine clinical care. METHODS: Unexpected vancomycin levels, observed during clinical care for 2 separate patients, were further evaluated to determine the source of the abnormal pharmacokinetics. In case 1, serial dilution was performed to assure that assay interference was not associated with the significant elevation (>100 mg/L). In both cases, samples were filtered using a Millipore Centrifree 30 KDa centrifugal filter to separate bound vancomycin, with a Protein G spin kit used to bind IgG and remove IgG complexes from the patient sample. In case 2, a polyethylene glycol precipitation was also performed to precipitate large-molecular-weight complexes. RESULTS: In both cases, laboratory analysis revealed abnormal vancomycin protein-binding profiles with macromolecular complex formation. Immunoglobulin G played a role in the macrocomplex in both patients. CONCLUSIONS: In cases of unusual or unexpected vancomycin pharmacokinetics in the absence of renal dysfunction, an abnormal protein-binding profile should be considered. Bound vancomycin may yield elevated serum levels, leading to poorly informed dose adjustments and risk for treatment failure. Given implications for therapeutic drug monitoring and unknown impacts on efficacy and toxicity, further investigations into population incidence and risk factors for abnormal protein binding of vancomycin are warranted.

Novel Use of Rifabutin and Rifapentine to Treat Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus in a Rat Model of Foreign Body Osteomyelitis.

BACKGROUND: Owing to patient intolerance or drug interactions, alternative agents to rifampin are needed for management of staphylococcal periprosthetic joint infection. In the current study, we evaluated rifabutin, rifapentine and rifampin, with and without vancomycin, in a rat model of foreign body osteomyelitis. METHODS: Proximal tibiae were inoculated with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and a Kirschner wire (K-wire) implanted in each. After 4 weeks of infection, rifampin, rifabutin, or rifapentine were administered, alone or with vancomycin. Tibiae and K-wires were cultured, and medians were reported as log10 colony-forming units (CFUs) per gram of bone or log10 CFUs per K-wire, respectively. RESULTS: Rifampin, rifabutin or rifapentine administered with vancomycin yielded less MRSA from bones (0.10, 3.02, and 0.10 log10 CFUs/g, respectively) than did no treatment (4.36 log10 CFUs/g) or vancomycin alone (4.64 log10 CFUs/g) (both P ≤ .02). The K-wires of animals receiving no treatment or vancomycin monotherapy recovered medians of 1.76 and 2.91 log10 CFUs/g per K-wire, respectively. In contrast, rifampin, rifabutin and rifapentine administered with vancomycin yielded medians of 0.1 log10 CFUs per K-wire, respectively. Rifampin resistance was detected in a single animal in the rifampin monotherapy group. CONCLUSIONS: Rifabutin or rifapentine with vancomycin were as active as rifampin with vancomycin against MRSA in rat foreign body osteomyelitis, suggesting that rifabutin and/or rifapentine may be alternatives to rifampin in the clinical management of staphylococcal periprosthetic joint infections.

Multicentre study of posaconazole delayed-release tablet serum level and association with hepatotoxicity and QTc prolongation.

Objectives: The association of posaconazole serum concentrations and toxicity is unclear. An assessment of whether levels obtained with the delayed-release tablet (DRT) formulation are correlated with abnormal liver function test (LFT) results and/or QTc prolongation was undertaken. Methods: This was a multicentre, retrospective, observational study of adult patients with cancer between 26 November 2013 and 14 November 2014. Patients were included if they received posaconazole DRT with a posaconazole level obtained between days 5 and 14. Clinical data, including demographics, hepatotoxic medications, posaconazole levels, LFTs and QTc intervals, were obtained. Association of factors with changes in LFTs and QTc prolongation was assessed using linear and logistic regression. Results: One hundred and sixty-six study patients were included. The median posaconazole level was 1250 (range 110-4220) ng/mL and the median time until level was 6 (range 5-14) days. There was a statistically significant increase in AST ( P < 0.001), ALT ( P < 0.001), alkaline phosphatase (ALK) ( P < 0.001), total bilirubin (TBILI) ( P < 0.001) and QTc ( P = 0.05) from baseline. Posaconazole levels were not associated with increases in AST [ß (SE) = -0.33 (2.2), P = 0.88], log ALT [ß (SE) = -0.02 (0.03), P = 0.63], ALK [ß (SE) = 2.2 (2.9), P = 0.46] and TBILI [ß (SE) = -0.01 (0.04), P = 0.88]. For each additional hepatotoxic medication, there was a mean change in TBILI of 0.13 mg/dL ( P = 0.02) and ALK of 7.1 U/L ( P = 0.09). No statistically significant association between posaconazole level and QTc interval prolongation was found. Conclusions: We did not identify an association between posaconazole serum concentrations and LFT elevations or QTc prolongation. However, some LFTs were found to increase with more hepatotoxic medications administered.

Impact of Cefepime Susceptible-Dose-Dependent MIC for Enterobacteriaceae on Reporting and Prescribing.

The CLSI cefepime breakpoints were revised to include a susceptible-dose-dependent (SDD) category for Enterobacteriaceae, with the intention that higher cefepime doses be used for these isolates. In this study, 1.6% of Enterobacteriaceae isolates were reported as SDD, with Escherichia coli the most common SDD organism. Cefepime was prescribed in three cases (4.8%); the majority of SDD isolates were treated with a carbapenem. Enterobacteriaceae with cefepime SDD MICs were not commonly treated with cefepime at our institution.

We Shape Our Tools and Then Our Tools Shape Us: OPAT and the EHR.

A commentary on Canterino et al. (2024) and Munsiff et al. (2024), articles where clinicians from two large OPAT programs.

Pharmacology of emerging drugs for the treatment of multi-drug resistant tuberculosis.

Mycobacterium tuberculosis (TB) remains the leading cause of infection-related mortality worldwide. Drug resistance, need for multiple antimycobacterial agents, prolonged treatment courses, and medication-related side effects are complicating factors to TB cure. The introduction of treatment regimens containing the novel agents bedaquiline, pretomanid, and linezolid, with or without moxifloxacin (BPaL-M or BPaL, respectively) have substantially reduced TB-related morbidity and mortality and are associated with favorable rates of treatment completion and cure. This review summarizes key information on the pharmacology and treatment principles for moxifloxacin, bedaquiline, delamanid, pretomanid, linezolid, and tedizolid in the treatment of multi-drug resistant TB, with recommendations provided to address and attenuate common adverse effects during treatment.

The OPAT opportunity for beta-lactam individualization.

Beta-lactam therapeutic drug monitoring has been growing in prevalence in the acute care hospital setting. Expansion of its use to outpatient parenteral antimicrobial therapy requires careful consideration of potential logistical and therapeutic barriers.

Association of renal function with mortality among hospitalized patients treated with remdesivir for COVID-19.

BACKGROUND AND AIM: Renal dysfunction is associated with poor outcomes in patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). In an effort to improve outcomes, intravenous remdesivir has been broadly used for the treatment of COVID-19 even in patients with low estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR). Our study assessed the residual risk of outcomes of patients with low eGFR despite treatment with remdesivir for COVID-19, during a timeframe prior to the expanded label across all levels of renal function. METHODS: We conducted an observational, retrospective, multi-site cohort study of adults hospitalized with COVID-19 treated with at least one dose of remdesivir between November 6, 2020, and November 5, 2021. Electronic medical records were reviewed to obtain patient characteristics, related laboratory data, and outcomes. The primary endpoint was all-cause mortality by day 28. Multivariable logistic regression was used to evaluate association between groups. RESULTS: The study population consisted of 3024 patients hospitalized with COVID-19 and treated with remdesivir. The median age was 67 [IQR 55, 77] years; 42.7% were women, and 88.6% were white. The median eGFR was 76.6 mL/min/1.73 m2 [IQR 52.5, 95.2]; the majority (67.2%) of patients had an eGFR ≥ 60, while 9% had an eGFR <30. All-cause mortality by day 28 was 8.7%. All-cause mortality rates were significantly higher among patients with impaired renal function (Odds Ratio [OR] 1.63 for patients with eGFR 30-59; OR 1.46 for eGFR 15-29; OR 2.42 for eGFR <15 and OR 5.44 for patients on dialysis) compared to patients with eGFR ≥60 mL/min/1.73m2. CONCLUSIONS: Lower eGFR remains an independent risk factor for mortality in COVID-19 even in patients treated with remdesivir.

Correction: Adema et al. Heartbreaking Decisions: The Dogma and Uncertainties of Antimicrobial Therapy in Infective Endocarditis. Pathogens 2023, 12, 703.

There was an error in the original publication [...].

Pharmacotherapeutic Considerations in the Treatment of Nontuberculous Mycobacterial Infections: A Primer for Clinicians.

Nontuberculous mycobacteria (NTM) can cause a variety of infections, including serious pulmonary disease. Treatment encompasses polypharmacy, with a targeted regimen of 2-5 active medications, depending on site of infection, species, and clinical characteristics. Medications may include oral, intravenous, and inhalational routes. Medication acquisition can be challenging for numerous reasons, including investigational status, limited distribution models, and insurance prior authorization. Additionally, monitoring and managing adverse reactions and drug interactions is a unique skill set. While NTM is primarily medically managed, clinicians may not be familiar with the intricacies of medication selection, procurement, and monitoring. This review offers insights into the pharmacotherapeutic considerations of this highly complex disease state, including regimen design, medication acquisition, safety monitoring, relevant drug-drug interactions, and adverse drug reactions.