Characterization of percutaneous absorption of calcium, magnesium, and potentially toxic elements in two tailored sulfurous therapeutic peloids: a comprehensive in vitro pilot study.

Pelotherapy treatments in thermal spas, which utilize peloids composed of clay minerals mixed with saltwater or mineral-medicinal water, can have various effects on spa users, ranging from therapeutic to potential adverse reactions. Despite the widespread use of peloids, comprehensive information on the penetration and permeation of essential and potentially toxic elements into deeper layers of the skin during pelotherapy is limited. Understanding the concentrations of these elements is crucial for evaluating therapeutic benefits and ensuring safety. This study investigates the in vitro availability and absorption of calcium, magnesium, and potentially toxic elements in two peloids, considering their formulation matrix. To replicate the pelotherapy methodology, an in vitro permeation experiment was conducted using a vertical diffusion chamber (Franz cells) and a biological system with human skin membranes from five Caucasian women, age range between 25 and 51 years. The experiment involved heating the peloids to 45℃. The results emphasize the possible transport properties of chemical elements in peloids, providing valuable information related to potential therapeutic efficacy and safety considerations. Despite no apparent differences between peloids' chemical composition, the method identified permeation variations among chemical elements. The methodology employed in this study adheres to the guidelines outlined by OECD for analyzing skin absorption through an in vitro approach. Furthermore, it aligns with the associated OECD guidance document for conducting skin absorption studies. The replicability of this methodology not only facilitates the analysis of peloids pre-formulation but also provides a robust means to evaluate the effectiveness of therapeutic elements during topical administration, particularly those with potential toxicity concerns.

Microencapsulation of Extracts of Strawberry (Fragaria vesca) By-Products by Spray-Drying Using Individual and Binary/Ternary Blends of Biopolymers.

Valorization of agricultural and food by-products (agri-food waste) and maximum utilization of this raw material constitute a highly relevant topic worldwide. Agri-food waste contains different types of phytochemical compounds such as polyphenols, that display a set of biological properties, including anti-inflammatory, chemo-preventive, and immune-stimulating effects. In this work, the microencapsulation of strawberry (Fragaria vesca) plant extract was made by spray-drying using individual biopolymers, as well as binary and ternary blends of pectin, alginate, and carrageenan. The microparticle morphologies depended on the formulation used, and they had an average size between 0.01 µm and 16.3 µm considering a volume size distribution. The encapsulation efficiency ranged between 81 and 100%. The kinetic models of Korsmeyer-Peppas (R2: 0.35-0.94) and Baker-Lonsdale (R2: 0.73-1.0) were fitted to the experimental release profiles. In general, the releases followed a "Fickian Diffusion" mechanism, with total release times varying between 100 and 350 (ternary blends) seconds. The microparticles containing only quercetin (one of the main polyphenols in the plant) showed higher antioxidant power compared to the extract and empty particles. Finally, the addition of the different types of microparticles to the gelatine (2.7 mPa.s) and to the aloe vera gel (640 mPa.s) provoked small changes in the viscosity of the final gelatine (2.3 and 3.3 mPa.s) and of the aloe vera gel (621-653 mPa.s). At a visual level, it is possible to conclude that in the gelatine matrix, there was a slight variation in color, while in the aloe vera gel, no changes were registered. In conclusion, these microparticles present promising characteristics for food, nutraceutical, and cosmetic applications.

Chemical attributes, bacterial community, and antibiotic resistance genes are affected by intensive use of soil in agro-ecosystems of the Atlantic Forest, Southeastern Brazil.

Soil is one of the largest reservoirs of microbial diversity in nature. Although soil management is vital for agricultural purposes, intensive practices can have a significant impact on fertility, microbial community, and resistome. Thus, the aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of an intensive soil management system on the chemical attributes, composition and structure of prevalent bacterial communities, and presence and abundance of antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs). The chemical characterization, bacterial diversity and relative abundance of ARGs were evaluated in soils from areas of intensive vegetable cultivation and forests. Results indicate that levels of nutrients and heavy metals were higher in soil samples from cultivated areas. Similarly, greater enrichment and diversity of bacterial genera was detected in agricultural areas. Of the 18 target ARGs evaluated, seven were detected in studied soils. The oprD gene exhibited the highest abundance among the studied genes and was the only one that showed a significantly different prevalence between areas. The oprD gene was identified only from soil of the cultivated areas. The blaSFO, erm(36), oprD and van genes, in addition to the pH, showed greater correlation with in soil of cultivated areas, which in turn exhibited higher contents of nutrients. Thus, in addition to changes in chemical attributes and in the microbial community of the soil, intensive agricultural cultivation systems cause a modification of its resistome, reinforcing the importance of the study of antimicrobial resistance in a One Health approach.

Assessing the carbon footprint of soybean transportation in Brazil: a network equilibrium model approach.

Brazil has historically invested few resources in its transport infrastructure, leaving gaps and reducing its efficiency. The country presents a high dependence on road transport, which results in increased operational costs and higher greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Consequently, the performance of cargo transportation in Brazil has been deteriorating, accompanied by a rise in the consumption of fossil fuels and noteworthy levels of GHG emissions. This article assesses the carbon intensity of soybean transport operations within Brazil. Utilizing a network equilibrium model, this study estimated the soybean transportation flows that minimize the total cost of transporting this product across the origins and destinations within the grain handling system. The modeling also calculated the GHG emissions in transportation. The results show that the transportation of soybeans produced 2.74 million tonnes of CO2 equivalent annually, with road transport accounting for 81.7% of these emissions. The state of Mato Grosso, responsible for 44.08 kg CO2 equivalent per tonne of soybeans transported, contributed almost 49% of the total emissions due to the extensive distances involved. In contrast, states like Paraná and Rio Grande do Sul, located closer to southern ports, exhibited the lowest emissions, with rates of 11.55 kg CO2 eq/t and 12.52 kg CO2 eq/t, respectively. The analysis highlights the significant potential for reducing GHG emissions by increasing the use of rail and barge transport, particularly in high-emission regions such as Mato Grosso.

Geochemical and mineralogical characterization of Ria de Aveiro (Portugal) saltpan sediments for pelotherapy application.

The present study aims to characterize sediments textural, geochemical and mineralogical composition used in a SPA for pelotherapy applications. Six samples were collected in two areas of an open-air saline SPA, a former saltpan in Ria de Aveiro (Portugal). Sampling areas are predominantly composed by recent alluvium that had been affected by chemical industrial effluents for over 50 years. Samples < 2000, 63, and 2 µm fractions were analyzed by X-ray Diffraction (XRD) and X-ray Fluorescence (XRF), for identification of mineral phases and chemical composition. SEM analysis was used for individual particles morphological characterization and chemical semi-quantification. Texture, mineral phases and chemical composition showed the influence of SPA pond beneficiation works. The two SPA areas revealed distinct mineral phases, one with higher quartz content, and the other with higher halite content, consistent with their environmental conditions. Illite constituted the most abundant mineral phase of the clay fraction. Preliminary results suggested concentrations of potential toxic elements (e.g., As, Cd) above reference values, representing a risk to the ecosystem and humans.

Bioaccessibility by perspiration uptake of minerals from two different sulfurous peloids.

The risks associated with the use of peloids in thermal centers, spas, or at home, must be tested to develop appropriate safety guidelines for peloids formulations and the release of substances of high concern. Additionally, the beneficial effects of some elements on human health should be assessed to aid in interpreting the therapeutic action and effectiveness of pelotherapy on dermatological or osteomuscular disorders. Therefore, a methodology was developed to better understand the biogeochemical behavior of the elements in formulated peloids. Two peloids were formulated with the same clay and two different sulfurous mineral-medicinal waters for 90 days, with light stirring every 15 days. Bentonite clay, with a high content of smectite and Ca and Mg as the main exchangeable cations, and high heat capacity, was used. The selected mineral-medicinal waters were collected from two Portuguese thermal centers with recognized therapeutic efficacy for rheumatic, respiratory and dermatological pathologies. The peloids were used without drying and withdrawn directly from the maturation tank, and a mixture of bentonite and demineralized water was prepared as a reference sample. A stabilized, ready-to-use, artificial perspiration test was used to simulate the peloids' interaction with skin. Thirty-one elements extracted from the two prepared peloids were analyzed using ICP-MS. The data were analyzed and related to the mineralogical composition of the original clay and supernatant composition of the maturation tanks. The content of some potentially toxic elements and metals' bioaccessibility by perspiration showed very low solubility and undetectable amounts extracted from the studied samples. This analytical method provided reliable information on dermal exposure and the identification of some elements that may enter the systemic circulation, requiring implementation of surveillance and control measures.

Continuous Production of Highly Tuned Silk/Calcium-Based Composites: Exploring New Pathways for Skin Regeneration.

Calcium plays an important role in barrier function repair and skin homeostasis. In particular, calcium phosphates (CaPs) are well established materials for biomedical engineering due to their biocompatibility. To generate biomaterials with a more complete set of biological properties, previously discarded silk sericin (SS) has been recovered and used as a template to grow CaPs. Crucial characteristics for skin applications, such as antibacterial activity, can be further enhanced by doping CaPs with cerium (Ce) ions. The effectiveness of cell attachment and growth on the materials highly depends on their morphology, particle size distribution, and chemical composition. These characteristics can be tailored through the application of oscillatory flow technology, which provides precise mixing control of the reaction medium. Thus, in the present work, CaP/SS and CaP/SS/Ce particles were fabricated for the first time using a modular oscillatory flow plate reactor (MOFPR) in a continuous mode. Furthermore, the biological behavior of both these composites and of previously produced pure CaPs was assessed using human dermal fibroblasts (HDFs). It was demonstrated that both CaP based with plate-shaped nanoparticles and CaP-SS-based composites significantly improved cell viability and proliferation over time. The results obtained represent a first step towards the reinvention of CaPs for skin engineering.

Long-term eutrophication and contamination of the central area of Sepetiba Bay (SW Brazil).

This work sheds light on the recent evolution (≈1915-2015 AD) of Sepetiba Bay (SB; SE Brazil), a subtropical coastal lagoon on the southwestern Brazilian coast, based on a multiproxy approach. Variations in geochemical proxies as well as textural, mineralogical and geochronological data allow us to reconstruct temporally constrained changes in the depositional environments along the SP3 sediment core collected from the central area of SB. At the beginning of the twentieth century, the substrate of the study site was composed of coarse-grained sediments, largely sourced from felsic rocks of proximal areas and deposited under moderate to strong shallow marine hydrodynamics. Since the 1930s, the study area has undergone silting and received high contributions of materials from mafic rocks sourced by river basins. The SP3 core reveals a shallowing-upward sequence due to human-induced silting with significant eutrophication since the middle of 1970, which was caused by significant enrichment of organic matter that was provided by not only marine productivity but also continental and human waste. In addition, the sediments deposited after 1980 exhibit significant enrichment and are moderately to strongly polluted by Cd and Zn. Metals were dispersed by hydrodynamics from the source areas, but diagenetic processes promoted their retention in the sediments. The potential ecological risk index (PERI) indicates that the level of high (considerable) ecological risk is in sediments deposited in ≈1995 (30-32 cm; subsurface). The applied methodology allowed us to understand the thickness of the bottom sediment affected by eutrophication processes and contaminants. Identical methodologies can be applied in other coastal zones, and can provide useful information to decision makers and stakeholders that manage those areas.

Protein crystals as a key for deciphering macromolecular crowding effects on biological reactions.

When placed in the same environment, biochemically unrelated macromolecules influence each other's biological function through macromolecular crowding (MC) effects. This has been illustrated in vitro by the effects of inert polymers on protein stability, protein structure, enzyme kinetics and protein aggregation kinetics. While a unified way to quantitatively characterize MC is still lacking, we show that the crystal solubility of lysozyme can be used to predict the influence of crowding agents on the catalytic efficiency of this enzyme. In order to capture general enthalpic effects, as well as hard entropic effects that are specific of large molecules, we tested sucrose and its cross-linked polymer Ficoll-70 as additives. Despite the different conditions of pH and ionic strength adopted, both the crystallization and the enzymatic assays point to an entropic contribution of approximately -1 kcal mol-1 caused by MC. Our results demonstrate that the thermodynamic activity of proteins is markedly increased by the reduction of accessible volume caused by the presence of macromolecular cosolutes. Unlike what is observed in protein folding studies, this MC effect cannot be reproduced using equivalent concentrations of monomeric crowding units. Applicable to any crystallizable protein, the thermodynamic interpretation of MC based on crystal solubility is expected to help in elucidating the full extent and importance of hard-type interactions in the crowded environment of the cell.

Regulation of the Serotonergic System by Kainate in the Avian Retina.

Serotonin (5-HT) has been recognized as a neurotransmitter in the vertebrate retina, restricted mainly to amacrine and bipolar cells. It is involved with synaptic processing and possibly as a mitogenic factor. We confirm that chick retina amacrine and bipolar cells are, respectively, heavily and faintly immunolabeled for 5-HT. Amacrine serotonergic cells also co-express tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), a marker of dopaminergic cells in the retina. Previous reports demonstrated that serotonin transport can be modulated by neurotransmitter receptor activation. As 5-HT is diffusely released as a neuromodulator and co-localized with other transmitters, we evaluated if 5-HT uptake or release is modulated by several mediators in the avian retina. The role of different glutamate receptors on serotonin transport and release in vitro and in vivo was also studied. We show that L-glutamate induces an inhibitory effect on [3H]5-HT uptake and this effect was specific to kainate receptor activation. Kainate-induced decrease in [3H]5-HT uptake was blocked by CNQX, an AMPA/kainate receptor antagonist, but not by MK-801, a NMDA receptor antagonist. [3H]5-HT uptake was not observed in the presence of AMPA, thus suggesting that the decrease in serotonin uptake is mediated by kainate. 5-HT (10-50 µM) had no intrinsic activity in raising intracellular Ca2+, but addition of 10 µM 5-HT decreased Ca2+ shifts induced by KCl in retinal neurons. Moreover, kainate decreased the number of bipolar and amacrine cells labeled to serotonin in chick retina. In conclusion, our data suggest a highly selective effect of kainate receptors in the regulation of serotonin functions in the retinal cells.

Chemical characterization of vines grown in incipient volcanic soils of Fogo Island (Cape Verde).

Climate and rich volcanic soils of Fogo Island (Cape Verde) are optimal conditions for grape agriculture. This study aims a first evaluation of the bioaccumulation of essential and non-essential elements in different parts of vines of the same variety (Vitis vinifera L.), grown on recent pyroclasts and lahar deposits. Chemical composition was obtained by instrumental neutron activation analysis. A general decrease of the chemical contents occurs in the following order: barks, leaves, and grapes. Lower chemical contents were found in the grapes cultivated on the lahar deposit, except for barium. Potassium and bromine are the most accumulated. A tendency for lower transfer coefficients and enrichment factors (EF) of the chemical elements studied occur in vines grown in lahar. Significant EF of the majority of the elements studied were observed, particularly in leaves and grapes. Among the rare earth elements (REE), the heavy ones are significantly enriched in grapes. Slight positive Eu anomalies occur, which can be explained as inherited from the soil, and by a preferential uptake of Eu2+, replacing Ca2+. Among potential harmful chemical elements, significant EF (> 10) for Cr, As, Sb, W, and U in the two vines occur. Although its low concentration, the results obtained point to U bioavailability. The bioaccumulation of some chemical elements in vines from Fogo Island may be due to several factors of geogenic/natural origin, namely soil composition, airborne fine particles, and the climatic conditions of aridity with a potential availability when raindrops fall.

A review of exposure assessment methods for epidemiological studies of health effects related to industrially contaminated sites.

BACKGROUND: this paper is based upon work from COST Action ICSHNet. Health risks related to living close to industrially contaminated sites (ICSs) are a public concern. Toxicology-based risk assessment of single contaminants is the main approach to assess health risks, but epidemiological studies which investigate the relationships between exposure and health directly in the affected population have contributed important evidence. Limitations in exposure assessment have substantially contributed to uncertainty about associations found in epidemiological studies. OBJECTIVES: to examine exposure assessment methods that have been used in epidemiological studies on ICSs and to provide recommendations for improved exposure assessment in epidemiological studies by comparing exposure assessment methods in epidemiological studies and risk assessments. METHODS: after defining the multi-media framework of exposure related to ICSs, we discussed selected multi-media models applied in Europe. We provided an overview of exposure assessment in 54 epidemiological studies from a systematic review of hazardous waste sites; a systematic review of 41 epidemiological studies on incinerators and 52 additional studies on ICSs and health identified for this review. RESULTS: we identified 10 multi-media models used in Europe primarily for risk assessment. Recent models incorporated estimation of internal biomarker levels. Predictions of the models differ particularly for the routes 'indoor air inhalation' and 'vegetable consumption'. Virtually all of the 54 hazardous waste studies used proximity indicators of exposure, based on municipality or zip code of residence (28 studies) or distance to a contaminated site (25 studies). One study used human biomonitoring. In virtually all epidemiological studies, actual land use was ignored. In the 52 additional studies on contaminated sites, proximity indicators were applied in 39 studies, air pollution dispersion modelling in 6 studies, and human biomonitoring in 9 studies. Exposure assessment in epidemiological studies on incinerators included indicators (presence of source in municipality and distance to the incinerator) and air dispersion modelling. Environmental multi-media modelling methods were not applied in any of the three groups of studies. CONCLUSIONS: recommendations for refined exposure assessment in epidemiological studies included the use of more sophisticated exposure metrics instead of simple proximity indicators where feasible, as distance from a source results in misclassification of exposure as it ignores key determinants of environmental fate and transport, source characteristics, land use, and human consumption behaviour. More validation studies using personal exposure or human biomonitoring are needed to assess misclassification of exposure. Exposure assessment should take more advantage of the detailed multi-media exposure assessment procedures developed for risk assessment. The use of indicators can be substantially improved by linking definition of zones of exposure to existing knowledge of extent of dispersion. Studies should incorporate more often land use and individual behaviour.

What Can the Kinetics of Amyloid Fibril Formation Tell about Off-pathway Aggregation?

Some of the most prevalent neurodegenerative diseases are characterized by the accumulation of amyloid fibrils in organs and tissues. Although the pathogenic role of these fibrils has not been completely established, increasing evidence suggests off-pathway aggregation as a source of toxic/detoxicating deposits that still remains to be targeted. The present work is a step toward the development of off-pathway modulators using the same amyloid-specific dyes as those conventionally employed to screen amyloid inhibitors. We identified a series of kinetic signatures revealing the quantitative importance of off-pathway aggregation relative to amyloid fibrillization; these include non-linear semilog plots of amyloid progress curves, highly variable end point signals, and half-life coordinates weakly influenced by concentration. Molecules that attenuate/intensify the magnitude of these signals are considered promising off-pathway inhibitors/promoters. An illustrative example shows that amyloid deposits of lysozyme are only the tip of an iceberg hiding a crowd of insoluble aggregates. Thoroughly validated using advanced microscopy techniques and complementary measurements of dynamic light scattering, CD, and soluble protein depletion, the new analytical tools are compatible with the high-throughput methods currently employed in drug discovery.

Cerebral malaria induces electrophysiological and neurochemical impairment in mice retinal tissue: possible effect on glutathione and glutamatergic system.

BACKGROUND: Cerebral malaria (CM) is a severe complication resulting from Plasmodium falciparum infection. This condition has usually been associated with cognitive, behavioural and motor dysfunctions, being the retinopathy the most serious consequence resulting from the disease. The pathophysiological mechanisms underlying this complication remain incompletely understood. Several experimental models of CM have already been developed in order to clarify those mechanisms related to this syndrome. In this context, the present work has been performed to investigate which possible electrophysiological and neurochemistry alterations could be involved in the CM pathology. METHODS: Experimental CM was induced in Plasmodium berghei-infected male and female C57Bl/6 mice. The survival and neurological symptoms of CM were registered. Brains and retina were assayed for TNF levels and NOS2 expression. Electroretinography measurements were recorded to assessed a- and b-wave amplitudes and neurochemicals changes were evaluated by determination of glutamate and glutathione levels by HPLC. RESULTS: Susceptible C57Bl/6 mice infected with ≈ 106 parasitized red blood cells (P. berghei ANKA strain), showed a low parasitaemia, with evident clinical signs as: respiratory failure, ataxia, hemiplegia, and coma followed by animal death. In parallel to the clinical characterization of CM, the retinal electrophysiological analysis showed an intense decrease of a- and-b-wave amplitude associated to cone photoreceptor response only at the 7 days post-infection. Neurochemical results demonstrated that the disease led to a decrease in the glutathione levels with 2 days post inoculation. It was also demonstrated that the increase in the glutathione levels during the infection was followed by the increase in the 3H-glutamate uptake rate (4 and 7 days post-infection), suggesting that CM condition causes an up-regulation of the transporters systems. Furthermore, these findings also highlighted that the electrophysiological and neurochemical alterations occurs in a manner independent on the establishment of an inflammatory response, once tumour necrosis factor levels and inducible nitric oxide synthase expression were altered only in the cerebral tissue but not in the retina. CONCLUSIONS: In summary, these findings indicate for the first time that CM induces neurochemical and electrophysiological impairment in the mice retinal tissue, in a TNF-independent manner.

Mauritia flexuosa L. protects against deficits in memory acquisition and oxidative stress in rat hippocampus induced by methylmercury exposure.

OBJECTIVE: Methylmercury (MeHg) is the most toxic form of mercury that can affect humans through the food chain by bioaccumulation. Human organism is capable of triggering visual and cognitive disorders, neurodegeneration, as well as increased production of reactive species of O2 and depletion of natural anti-oxidant agents. In this context, Mauritia flexuosa L., a fruit rich in compounds with anti-oxidant properties, emerged as an important strategy to prevent the MeHg damages. So, this work has aimed to elucidate the protective effect of Mauritia flexuosa L. on the damage caused by the exposure of rats to MeHg. METHODS: In order to evaluate the effect of MeHg on rat aversive memory acquisition and panic-like behavior, we have used elevated T-maze apparatus and after behavioral test, the hippocampus was removed to perfom lipid peroxidation. RESULTS: Our results demonstrated that the exposure to MeHg caused deficits in inhibitory avoidance acquisition (aversive conditioning) and in the learning process, and increased levels of lipid peroxidation in hippocampus tissue. However, the pretreatment with feed enriched with Mauritia flexuosa L. showed a protective effect against cognitive deficits caused by MeHg and also prevented the occurrence of cytoplasmic membrane damage induced by lipid peroxidation in the hippocampal region. DISCUSSION: Therefore, this study suggests that Mauritia flexuosa L. represents an important strategy to prevent neurocytotoxics and behavioral effects of MeHg.

Diet enriched with the Amazon fruit açaí (Euterpe oleracea) prevents electrophysiological deficits and oxidative stress induced by methyl-mercury in the rat retina.

BACKGROUND: The protective effect of a diet supplemented by the Amazonian fruit Euterpe oleracea (EO) against methylmercury (MeHg) toxicity in rat retina was studied using electroretinography (ERG) and biochemical evaluation of oxidative stress. METHOD: Wistar rats were submitted to conventional diet or EO-enriched diet for 28 days. After that, each group received saline solution or 5 mg/kg/day of MeHg for 7 days. Full-field single flash, flash and flicker ERGs were evaluated in the following groups: control, EO, MeHg, and EO+MeHg. The amplitudes of the a-wave, b-wave, photopic negative response from rod and/or cone were measured by ERGs as well as the amplitudes and phases of the fundamental component of the sine-wave flicker ERG. Lipid peroxidation was determined by thiobarbituric acid reactive species. RESULTS: All ERG components had decreased amplitudes in the MeHg group when compared with controls. EO-enriched food had no effect on the non-intoxicated animals. The intoxicated animals and those that received the supplemented diet presented significant amplitude reductions of the cone b-wave and of the fundamental flicker component when compared with non-intoxicated control. The protective effect of the diet on scotopic conditions was only observed for bright flashes eliciting a mixed rod and cone response. There was a significant increase of lipid peroxidation in the retina from animals exposed to MeHg and EO-supplemented diet was able to prevent MeHg-induced oxidative stress in retinal tissue. CONCLUSION: These findings open up perspectives for the use of diets supplemented with EO as a protective strategy against visual damage induced by MeHg.

Nitric oxide as a regulatory molecule in the processing of the visual stimulus.

Nitric oxide (NO) is a highly reactive gas with considerable diffusion power that is produced pre- and post synaptically in the central nervous system (CNS). In the visual system, it is involved in the processing of the visual information from the retina to superior visual centers. In this review we discuss the main mechanisms through which nitric oxide acts, in physiological levels, on the retina, lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) and primary visual cortex. In the retina, the cGMP-dependent nitric oxide activity initially amplifies the signal, subsequently increasing the inhibitory activity, suggesting that the signal is "filtered". In the thalamus, on dLGN, neuronal activity is amplified by NO derived from brainstem cholinergic cells, in a cGMP-independent mechanism; the result is the amplification of the signal arriving from retina. Finally, on the visual cortex (V1), NO acts through changes on the cGMP levels, increasing signal detection. These observations suggest that NO works like a filter, modulating the signal along the visual pathways.

Foraminiferal biotopes and their distribution control in Ria de Aveiro (Portugal): a multiproxy approach.

Ria de Aveiro, which is located in the centre of Portugal (40° 38' N, 8° 45' W), is a well-mixed and complex coastal lagoon that is separated from the sea by a sandy barrier and connects with the Atlantic through an artificial inlet. Tidal currents are the main factor controlling the lagoon's hydrodynamics and, to a great extent, the sedimentary dynamic. The inner lagoonal zones receive input from several rivers and experience the pressure caused by the accumulation of organic matter and pollutants (namely, trace metals) from diverse anthropic activities. This paper is the first piece of work aiming to recognize, characterize and explain the main benthic foraminiferal biotopes in Ria de Aveiro. To provide a broad overview of this kind of setting, our results are compared to those of previous published studies conducted in similar transitional environments. The research is based on an investigation of 225 sites spread throughout this ecosystem. Utilizing a statistical approach, this study analyses the details of dead benthic foraminiferal assemblages composed of 260 taxa, the texture and composition (mineralogical and geochemical) of the sediment and physicochemical data. On the basis of the results of R-mode and Q-mode cluster analyses, several different biotopes can be defined as marsh biotope/near-marsh biotope; marginal urban/marginal urban mixing biotope; inner-outer lagoon biotope or enclosed lagoon; outer lagoon biotope, mixed sub-biotope; and outer lagoon, marine sub-biotope. These biotopes are related to foraminifera assemblages and substrate type and are influenced by local currents, water depth, chemical and physicochemical conditions, river or oceanic proximity, and anthropogenic impact, as evidenced by the mapping of the six factor loadings of the principal component analysis conducted herein. Based on a similar methodology of analysis as that applied in previous studies in the Lagoon of Venice, comparable biotypes were identified in Lagoon of Aveiro.

Statistical simplex centroid experimental design for evaluation of pectin, modified chitosan and modified starch as encapsulating agents on the development of vitamin E-loaded microparticles by spray-drying.

Vitamin E encapsulation into biopolymer-based microparticles, obtained by spray-drying technology, was proposed to improve the encapsulation efficiency and the controlled release of fat-soluble vitamin. Binary and ternary blends of pectin, modified chitosan and modified starch, modified starch + modified chitosan, modified starch + pectin, modified chitosan + pectin and modified starch + modified chitosan + pectin ((0.33, 0.33, 0.33), (0.70, 0.15, 0.15), (0.15, 0.70, 0.15) and (0.15, 0.15, 0.70)) were proposed to produce and evaluate different carrier-based delivery systems. Vitamin E-loaded microparticles and empty microparticles were created with a product yield between 9 and 49 %. The mean diameter among all microparticles varied between 3.74 ± 0.02 and 421 ± 21 µm (differential volume distribution). Oval, spherical or irregular microparticles, with a variable morphology from a smooth to a high rough surface structure, with concavities, were produced. All vitamin E-loaded microparticles exhibited an encapsulation efficiency higher than 70 %. The slower vitamin E controlled release was observed from microparticles composed by modified chitosan (>36 h), while the faster release was achieved from microparticles individually composed by pectin (39 min). In general, the Fickian diffusion is the main release mechanism involved in the microparticles produced with modified chitosan, other formulations combine also other mechanisms such as swelling.

In vitro bioaccessibility and intestinal transport of retinoic acid in ethyl cellulose-based microparticles and impact of meal co-ingestion.

The development of carrier-based delivery systems for oral administration of retinoic acid (RA), that provides its release and absorption at intestinal level, is of major relevance in the treatment of acute promyelocytic leukemia. The aim of this work was to evaluate RA bioaccessibility and intestinal transport on ethyl cellulose (EC)- and EC + polyethylene glycol (ECP)-based microparticles and to understand the impact of meal co-ingestion by applying in vitro assays. RA-loaded microparticles were produced by spray-drying with an encapsulation efficiency higher than 90 % for both formulations. The gastric bioaccessibility of RA (after in vitro static digestion of RA-loaded particles) was lower than 3 % for both types of microparticles, with and without meal co-ingestion. Whereas after intestinal digestion, RA bioaccessibility was significantly higher and affected by the type of microparticles and the presence of meal. The digestion of EC- and ECP-based microparticles without diet enabled a significantly higher bioaccessibility of RA when compared to the one recorded for the co-digestion of these microparticles with diet. Herein, RA bioaccessibility decreased from 84 ± 1 to 24 ± 6 % (p < 0.0001) for microparticles EC and 54 ± 4 to 25 ± 5 % (p < 0.001) for microparticles ECP. Moreover, comparing both types of microparticles, RA bioaccessibility was significantly higher for EC-based microparticles digested without diet (p < 0.0001). At last, the bioaccessibility of RA was similar among EC- and ECP-based microparticles when co-digested with diet. Intestinal transport experiments performed in Caco-2 monolayers evidenced that after 2 h of transport the amount of RA retained in the apical compartment was higher than the amount that reached the basolateral compartment evidencing a slow transport at intestinal level that was higher when RA is spiked in the blank of digestion and the meal digestion samples compared to RA dissolved in HBSS (44 ± 6 (p < 0.01) and 38 ± 1 (p < 0.05) vs 26 ± 2 %, respectively).