Clinical Phenotype of Respiratory Syncytial Virus Bronchiolitis before and during the Coronavirus Disease 2019 Pandemic.

OBJECTIVE: The main objective of this report was to comprehensively analyze the clinical characteristics of children hospitalized with respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infections in 2021 during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic and to compare them with those in the five previous RSV seasons. We hypothesized that the clinical and demographic features of children hospitalized with RSV infection in 2021 were different from those hospitalized in previous respiratory seasons. STUDY DESIGN: In this retrospective observational study, children younger than 2 years hospitalized with RSV bronchiolitis from January 1, 2015, to December 31, 2021, at the Department of Pediatrics of the Hospital Gregorio Marañón, Madrid, Spain, were included. We compared the clinical characteristics of children hospitalized with RSV bronchiolitis in the five seasons before the COVID-19 pandemic and during the subsequent off-seasonal surge of RSV infections. RESULTS: We found a significant reduction in hospitalizations for RSV bronchiolitis during the usual winter epidemic period due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Children hospitalized with RSV infection in 2021, during the COVID-19 pandemic, were older than children hospitalized in the prepandemic period (2015-2020; 4.0 [1.6-9.2] vs. 3 [1.5-6.5] months; p < 0.01). We also found shorter duration of oxygen days during the COVID-19 period compared with previous respiratory seasons (3 [2-5] vs. 4 [2-6] days; p = 0.02). CONCLUSION: The COVID-19 pandemic modified the RSV seasonality with a significant reduction in RSV hospitalizations during the expected 2020-2021 season and a reappearance of RSV 7 months later than expected. We also found changes in the median age of children with RSV bronchiolitis during the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic compared with the prepandemic RSV seasons and shorter duration of oxygen days suggesting a modest reduction in disease severity. We hypothesize that this observation reflects the lack of RSV circulation in the previous months (April 2020-March 2021), with a larger pool of vulnerable infants that had not been previously infected. KEY POINTS: · The COVID-19 pandemic shifted RSV seasonality.. · RSV children hospitalized during the pandemic were older.. · Modest reduction in disease severity was observed during the pandemic..

Longitudinal plasma cytokine concentrations and recurrent wheezing after RSV bronchiolitis.

BACKGROUND: Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) bronchiolitis in young children has been associated with increased risk for developing recurrent wheezing, but the underlying mechanisms, are not completely defined. We hypothesized that RSV induces a disregulated immune response defined by a distinct cytokine profile in infants at increased risk for developing recurrent wheezing. METHODS: Previously healthy infants less than 12 months of age hospitalized with a first episode of RSV bronchiolitis were enrolled and blood samples and clinical and epidemiological data collected. A group of healthy non-infected controls were enrolled in parallel. Children were followed longitudinally and subsequent blood samples collected in RSV-infected infants at one month and at one year after hospital discharge to measure longitudinal plasma concentrations of IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12, IL-17 and IL1-ß. Risk of post-RSV wheezing was assessed by Poisson modelling. RESULTS: From October 2008 to March 2012 we enrolled 37 infants hospitalized with RSV bronchiolitis and 9 healthy age-matched controls. Within the RSV cohort, 17 (46%) children developed recurrent wheezing within the following 12 months. Plasma cytokine profiles measured during the acute infection were similar in children who developed recurrent wheezing versus those who did not, but lower in healthy controls vs RSV infants who subsequently developed wheezing. At one month and 12 months post-acute RSV infection, infants who developed recurrent wheezing had higher IFN-γ plasma concentrations versus those with no-wheezing (p < 0.05). Moreover, IFN-γ concentrations were identified as independent predictor of post-RSV wheezing. CONCLUSIONS: Children with RSV-associated recurrent wheezing had persistently elevated plasma concentrations of IFN-γ for a year after acute infection, suggesting that this cytokine could be used as a biomarker for risk of recurrent wheezing and possibly plays a role in the pathogenesis of this condition.

The clinical relevance of the microbiome when managing paediatric infectious diseases-Narrative review.

In recent years, the field of infectious diseases has been hit by the overwhelming amount of information generated while the human microbiome is being disentangled. Based on the interaction between the microbiota and the immune system, the implications regarding infectious diseases are probably major and remain a challenge. AIMS: This review was conceived as a comprehensive tool to provide an overview of the available evidence regarding the influence of the microbiome on infectious diseases in children. METHODS: We present the main findings aroused from microbiome research in prevention, diagnosis and treatment of infectious disease under a paediatric perspective, to inform clinicians of the potential relevance of microbiome-related knowledge for translation to clinical practice. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: The evidence shown in this review highlights the numerous research gaps ahead and supports the need to move forward to integrating the so-called microbiome thinking into our routine clinical practice.

The journey to a respiratory syncytial virus vaccine.

OBJECTIVE: The high burden associated with respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) has made the development of RSV vaccine(s) a global health high priority. This review summarizes the journey to an RSV vaccine, the different strategies and challenges associated with the development of preventive strategies for RSV, and the diverse products that are undergoing clinical testing. DATA SOURCES: Studies on RSV biology, immunology, epidemiology, and monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) and vaccines were searched using MEDLINE. We also searched PATH.org and ClinicalTrials.gov for updated information regarding the status of RSV vaccines and mAbs undergoing clinical trials. STUDY SELECTIONS: We selected relevant studies conducted in infants and young children, pregnant women, and elderly population for the prevention of RSV infection. RESULTS: Identification of a safe and immunogenic vaccine has been an important but elusive initiative for more than 60 years for different reasons, including the legacy of formalin-inactivated vaccine, our limited understanding of the immune response to RSV and how it relates to clinical disease severity, or the need for different end points according to the different vaccine platforms. Nevertheless, there are currently 39 vaccines and mAbs under development and 19 undergoing clinical trials. CONCLUSION: Over the past decade, there have been significant advances in our knowledge of RSV molecular and structural biology and in understanding the human immune response to RSV. Despite the barriers, there are several promising mAbs and RSV vaccines undergoing clinical trials that hope to offer protection to the most vulnerable populations.

Expert consensus on palivizumab use for respiratory syncytial virus in developed countries.

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection is a leading cause of hospitalisation in early childhood and palivizumab is the only licensed intervention for prevention. Palivizumab guidelines should reflect the latest evidence, in addition to cost-effectiveness and healthcare budgetary considerations. RSV experts from Europe, Canada and Israel undertook a systematic review of the evidence over the last 5 years and developed recommendations regarding prophylaxis in industrialised countries. Almost 400 publications were reviewed. This group recommended palivizumab for: preterm infants (<29 and ≤31 weeks gestational age [wGA] and ≤9 and ≤6 months of age, respectively; high-risk 32-35wGA), former preterm children ≤24 months with chronic lung disease/bronchopulmonary dysplasia, children ≤24 months with significant congenital heart disease; and other high-risk populations, such as children ≤24 months with Down syndrome, pulmonary/neuromuscular disorders, immunocompromised, and cystic fibrosis. Up to 5 monthly doses should be administered over the RSV season. It is our impression that the adoption of these guidelines would help reduce the burden of RSV.

Interaction between healthcare professionals and parents is a key determinant of parental distress during childhood hospitalisation for respiratory syncytial virus infection (European RSV Outcomes Study [EROS]).

AIM: We characterised the distress that parents experienced when their child was hospitalised for respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection. METHODS: This survey-based, observational study was conducted during 2014-2015. Meetings were held in Spain and Italy, with 24 parents of RSV hospitalised infants and 11 healthcare professionals experienced in RSV, which identified 110 factors related to parental distress. The resulting questionnaire was completed by another 105 Spanish and Italian parents and 56 healthcare professionals, to assess the impact these factors had on parental distress, using a scale from 0 to 10 (very unimportant to very important). RESULTS: The five most important factors for parents were: healthcare professionals' awareness of the latest developments, readmission, reinfections, painful procedures and positive experiences with healthcare professionals. Healthcare professionals associated only medical factors with a meaningful impact on parents. Half of the six medical factors were given similar importance by both groups and the overall scoring for the 110 factors was comparable, with a correlation coefficient of 0.80. A primary concern on discharge was ongoing support. CONCLUSION: The relationship between parents and healthcare professionals was a significant factor in determining parental distress. Healthcare professionals appeared to have a good understanding of the overall impact on parents, particularly the key medical factors.

Respiratory Syncytial Virus Genotypes, Host Immune Profiles, and Disease Severity in Young Children Hospitalized With Bronchiolitis.

Background: Data on how respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) genotypes influence disease severity and host immune responses is limited. Here, we characterized the genetic variability of RSV during 5 seasons, and evaluated the role of RSV subtypes, genotypes, and viral loads in disease severity and host transcriptional profiles. Methods: A prospective, observational study was carried out, including a convenience sample of healthy infants hospitalized with RSV bronchiolitis. Nasopharyngeal samples for viral load quantitation, typing, and genotyping, and blood samples for transcriptome analyses were obtained within 24 hours of hospitalization. Multivariate models were constructed to identify virologic and clinical variables predictive of clinical outcomes. Results: We enrolled 253 infants (median age 2.1 [25%-75% interquartile range] months). RSV A infections predominated over RSV B and showed greater genotype variability. RSV A/GA2, A/GA5, and RSV B/BA were the most common genotypes identified. Compared to GA2 or BA, infants with GA5 infections had higher viral loads. GA5 infections were associated with longer hospital stay, and with less activation of interferon and increased overexpression of neutrophil genes. Conclusions: RSV A infections were more frequent than RSV B, and displayed greater variability. GA5 infections were associated with enhanced disease severity and distinct host immune responses.

Conservation of G-Protein Epitopes in Respiratory Syncytial Virus (Group A) Despite Broad Genetic Diversity: Is Antibody Selection Involved in Virus Evolution?

UNLABELLED: Worldwide G-glycoprotein phylogeny of human respiratory syncytial virus (hRSV) group A sequences revealed diversification in major clades and genotypes over more than 50 years of recorded history. Multiple genotypes cocirculated during prolonged periods of time, but recent dominance of the GA2 genotype was noticed in several studies, and it is highlighted here with sequences from viruses circulating recently in Spain and Panama. Reactivity of group A viruses with monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) that recognize strain-variable epitopes of the G glycoprotein failed to correlate genotype diversification with antibody reactivity. Additionally, no clear correlation was found between changes in strain-variable epitopes and predicted sites of positive selection, despite both traits being associated with the C-terminal third of the G glycoprotein. Hence, our data do not lend support to the proposed antibody-driven selection of variants as a major determinant of hRSV evolution. Other alternative mechanisms are considered to account for the high degree of hRSV G-protein variability. IMPORTANCE: An unusual characteristic of the G glycoprotein of human respiratory syncytial virus (hRSV) is the accumulation of nonsynonymous (N) changes at higher rates than synonymous (S) changes, reaching dN/dS values at certain sites predictive of positive selection. Since these sites cluster preferentially in the C-terminal third of the G protein, like certain epitopes recognized by murine antibodies, it was proposed that immune (antibody) selection might be driving the apparent positive selection, analogous to the antigenic drift observed in the influenza virus hemagglutinin (HA). However, careful antigenic and genetic comparison of the G glycoprotein does not provide evidence of antigenic drift in the G molecule, in agreement with recently published data which did not indicate antigenic drift in the G protein with human sera. Alternative explanations to the immune-driven selection hypothesis are offered to account for the high level of G-protein genetic diversity highlighted in this study.

[Survey of adolescent perception of hospital admission. The importance of hospital humanisation]. / Percepción de los adolescentes sobre el ingreso hospitalario. Importancia de la humanización de los hospitales infantiles.

INTRODUCTION: The humanisation of health care involves considering the patient as an integral human being, providing assistance beyond medical care, and covering other fields such as social, emotional, spiritual, or relational areas. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the requirements and concerns of the hospitalised children. SUBJECTS AND METHOD: A cross-sectional, descriptive study was conducted using an anonymous questionnaire on children aged 12-16. RESULTS: The study included 39 patients, with a median age of 14 years. The most unpleasant experience during the hospitalisation was the invasive procedures. Almost all (95%) of patients suffered from pain, and 17% of them felt at some point that a procedure was performed without them being fully aware. More than 75% of children asked for more entertainment, with the lack of Wi-Fi being the more demanded item. CONCLUSIONS: The needs of the population included in this survey, showed the importance to consider cognitive (necessity of obtaining clear and extensive information), social (maintaining everyday relationships), emotional (illness and its diagnostic and therapeutic procedures often generate mood disorders), and practical (environmental and architectural aspects can lead to either an improvement or a worsening of the hospitalisation perception) factors. All of these factors have shown a beneficial contribution, leading to an earlier recovery of health.

Long-term lung function follow-up of preterm infants less than 32 weeks of gestational age.

BACKGROUND: Preterm infants, particularly those with bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD), are at risk of lung development problems. Over the last decades, lung protective strategies have been used, decreasing the risk of chronic lung disease. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the pulmonary function test (PFT) of preterm infants born after the introduction of lung protective strategies and to assess perinatal determinants of impaired lung function in this population. METHODS: A prospective, observational, single-center study was conducted in the neonatal unit of a high-complexity hospital. The study included newborns with less than 32 weeks gestational age born between 2012 and 2014, who were followed up until they reach school age. For the main outcome, two groups were stablished: no BPD or grade 1 BPD (no BPD/1) and grade 2 or 3 BPD (BPD 2/3). RESULTS: Out of 327 patients, 116 were included. BPD was diagnosed in 49.1% (47), with 50.9% (29) classified as grade 1, 35.1% (20) as grade 2, and 14.0% (8) as grade 3. Mean age at PFT was 8.59 years (SD 0.90). Mean FEV1% was 95.36% (SD 13.21) and FEV1 z-score -0.36 (SD 1.12); FVC% 97.53% (SD 12.59) and FVC z-score -0.20 (SD 1.06); FEV1/FVC ratio 85.84% (SD 8.34) and z-score -0.24 (SD 1.34). When comparing patients with no BPD/1 and BPD 2/3, we observed differences in all pulmonary function parameters, which persisted after adjusting for gestational age. No differences in PFT were observed between patients without BPD and those with grade 1 BPD. Most patients (76.7%, 89) had normal spirometry pattern, with obstructive pattern observed in 12.9% (15), restrictive pattern in 9.5% (11), and mixed pattern in 0.9% (1) of patients. CONCLUSION: Preterm infants with BPD 2/3 showed a decrease in all pulmonary function parameters compared to preterm infants with no BPD/1; an effect that was independent of gestational age. Among patients with BPD who had an altered PFT pattern, the most common pattern was obstructive, followed by restrictive and then, mixed.

Cost-effectiveness Analysis of Maternal Immunization with RSVpreF Vaccine for the Prevention of Respiratory Syncytial Virus Among Infants in Spain.

INTRODUCTION: Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the leading cause of acute lower respiratory infections (ALRI) in children under one year of age. In high-income countries, RSV infections cause a significant overload of care every winter, imposing a significant burden to the healthcare system, which has made the development of prevention strategies a major global health priority. In this context, a new bivalent RSV prefusion F protein-based vaccine (RSVpreF) has recently been approved. The objective of this study was to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of vaccinating pregnant women with the RSVpreF vaccine to prevent RSV in infants from the Spanish National Healthcare System (NHS) perspective. METHODS: A hypothetical cohort framework and a Markov-type process were used to estimate clinical outcomes, costs, quality-adjusted life years (QALY) and cost-per-QALY gained (willingness-to-pay threshold: €25,000/QALY) for newborn infants born to RSV-vaccinated versus unvaccinated mothers over an RSV season. The base case analysis was performed from the NHS perspective including direct costs (€2023) and applying a discount of 3% to future costs and outcomes. To evaluate the robustness of the model, several scenarios, and deterministic and probabilistic analyses were carried out. All the parameters and assumptions were validated by a panel of experts. RESULTS: The results of the study showed that year-round maternal vaccination program with 70% coverage is a dominant option compared to no intervention, resulting in direct cost savings of €1.8 million each year, with an increase of 551 QALYs. Maternal vaccination could prevent 38% of hospital admissions, 23% of emergency room visits, 19% of primary care visits, and 34% of deaths due to RSV. All scenario analyses showed consistent results, and according to the probabilistic sensitivity analysis (PSA), the probability of maternal vaccination being cost-effective versus no intervention was 99%. CONCLUSIONS: From the Spanish NHS perspective, maternal vaccination with bivalent RSVpreF is a dominant alternative compared with a non-prevention strategy.

How can we improve the quality of health care in hospital attendance of medically complex children? / ¿Cómo podemos mejorar la calidad de la atención hospitalaria de los pacientes crónicos complejos en pediatría?

Hospital care of medically complex children (MCC) is increasing, although its real prevalence in Spain is unknown. OBJECTIVE: to analyze hospital admissions and outpatient follow-up of MCC in order to identify strategies to improve the quality of care of MCC. PATIENTS AND METHOD: An analytical, observational, and retrospective study was carried out. We included MCC who were admitted to Pediatric Hospitalization in the last 5 years, in a tertiary hospital without a specific unit for MCC. Clinical data related to their underlying pathology, outpatient visits, and hospital admissions were collected. A multivariate study was carried out to describe risk factors of the need for technological support and to predict prolonged admissions and the hospital consultation rate. RESULTS: 99 MCC (55.6% males) aged 3.9 (2-8) years were included. 41.4% of MCC required technological support at home and presented the highest number of comorbidities, hospital admissions, and care by different specialists (p < 0.01). Older MCC (p < 0.01) with underlying digestive disease (p < 0.04) and respiratory comorbidity (p < 0.04) presented a longer mean hospital stays. Younger patients with more admissions, longer average stay, and a lack of follow-up by the link nurse were associated with a greater number of annual consultations (p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: MCC require a high number of annual consultations and have long hospital stays. The creation of specialized consultations for MCC, multidisciplinary care, and the participation of the link nurse are strategies to improve the quality of care for MCC in hospitals without specific MCC units.

Clinical Relevance of RSV and SARS-CoV-2 Coinfections in Infants and Young Children.

We analyzed the frequency, clinical impact and severity of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) and SARS-CoV-2 coinfections in a single pediatric center between March 2020 and January 2023. Compared to single RSV infections, RSV/SARS-CoV-2 coinfections were uncommon (2.1%), occurred more frequently during circulation of omicron, and were associated with increased disease severity as defined by longer hospitalization and increased need for high-flow nasal cannula.

Age and respiratory syncytial virus etiology in bronchiolitis clinical outcomes.

Background: Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the most frequent cause of bronchiolitis. Precise and updated information about demographic characteristics, clinical manifestations, and risk factors for severe disease are needed for optimal implementation of upcoming new therapeutic and preventive interventions. Objectives: The main goals of this study were to define the epidemiology of acute bronchiolitis in hospitalized young children during 5 calendar years in Spain; evaluate the differences in clinical manifestations between children hospitalized with RSV infection and those hospitalized with non-RSV infection; and identify demographic characteristics, clinical parameters, and risk factors associated with disease severity. Methods: We performed a retrospective review of the medical records of children younger than 2 years who were hospitalized with bronchiolitis between January 2015 and December 2019. We constructed multivariable models to identify independent predictors of disease severity defined as length of hospital stay (LOS), pediatric intensive care unit (PICU) admission, and need for a high-flow-nasal canula (HFNC). Results: From January 2015 to December 2019, 1437 children were hospitalized with bronchiolitis and met the inclusion criteria. The proportion of children hospitalized with bronchiolitis caused by RSV increased significantly during the study period, from 60% to 65% (P = .03). The children with RSV bronchiolitis were younger than those with non-RSV bronchiolitis (median age = 3 months [interquartile range = 1.5-6.5 months] vs 4 months [interquartile range = 2-7.5 months], respectively (P < .01). The children younger than 6 months with RSV bronchiolitis had enhanced disease severity compared with those with non-RSV bronchiolitis, as defined by an LOS of more than 4 days, severity scores, need for an HFNC, intravenous fluids, enteral feeding, and PICU admissions (P < .01). Age younger than 6 months and RSV-positive etiology were independently associated with greater odds of PICU admission, need for an HFNC, and longer LOS. Conclusion: This study identified differences in disease severity between young children with RSV bronchiolitis and those with non-RSV bronchiolitis. These differences are particularly significant in children younger than 6 months, who comprise a group of infants with suboptimal innate immunity to RSV and may benefit from new preventive strategies.

Do we overestimate intravenous fluid therapy needs? Adverse effects related to isotonic solutions during pediatric hospital admissions.

INTRODUCTION: Maintenance intravenous fluids are frequently used in hospitalised pediatric patients. The aim of the study was to describe the adverse effects of isotonic fluid therapy in hospitalised patients, and its prevalence based on the rate of infusion. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A prospective clinical observational study was designed. We included hospitalised patients between 3 months-old and 15-years-old were included with 0,9% isotonic solutions with 5% glucose within the first 24 h of administration. They were divided into two groups, depending on the quantity of liquid they received (restricted <100% vs 100% maintenance needs). Clinical data and laboratory findings were recorded in two different times (T0 when they were admitted to hospital and T1 within the first 24 h of administration). RESULTS: The study included 84 patients, 33 received <100% maintenance needs and 51 patients received around 100%. The main adverse effects notified in the first 24 h of administration were hyperchloremia >110 mEq/L (16.6%) and oedema (19%). Oedema was more frequent in patients with lower age (p < 0,01). The hyperchloremia at 24 h of intravenous fluids was an independent risk factor of developing oedema (OR 1,73 (1,0-3,8), p = 0,06). CONCLUSION: The use of isotonic fluids is not free from adverse effects, probably related to the rate of infusion and more likely to appear in infants. It`s necessary more studies that review the correct estimation of intravenous fluid needs in hospitalized children.