Effectiveness of Couple Therapy in Practice Settings and Identification of Potential Predictors for Different Outcomes: Results of a German Nationwide Naturalistic Study.

Even though couple therapy is efficacious, there is no improvement in up to 50% of the couples. Also effect sizes found in effectiveness studies in real-world settings are considerably lower than those found in efficacy studies. There is a need to understand more about couple therapy effectiveness in practice settings and the factors responsible for different outcomes. A German nationwide study on the effectiveness of couple counseling including 554 couples applied the same methodology as two earlier studies in the same field. A remarkable consistency was found over the three independent studies in the burden with individual and relationship distress as well as in the rates of improvement. This supports the insight that the improvements reached through couple therapy in practice settings are only about half of the effect sizes reached in efficacy trials. Additionally this study investigated 64 factors, which were found to be influential for relationship quality and stability in earlier studies, for their impact on outcome. Factors present at initiation and termination of therapy were found, which correlate significantly with outcome and with separation of the couple in the follow-up. These factors could be included in prediction models for improvement and separation of the couple. The implications for the practice of couple therapy and for future research are discussed.

Aunque la terapia de pareja es eficaz, no se producen mejoras en hasta el 50 % de las parejas. Además, los tamaños del efecto hallados en los estudios de eficacia real en entornos del mundo real son considerablemente menores que los hallados en los estudios de eficacia teórica. Existe la necesidad de saber más acerca de la eficacia real de la terapia de pareja en la práctica clínica y de los factores responsables de los diferentes resultados. Un estudio alemán a nivel nacional sobre la eficacia real de la terapia de pareja en el que participaron 554 parejas aplicó la misma metodología que dos estudios anteriores en el mismo ámbito. Se halló una coherencia notable entre los tres estudios independientes en la carga con el distrés individual y relacional, así como en los índices de mejora. Esto respalda la percepción de que las mejoras logradas mediante la terapia de pareja en la práctica clínica es solo aproximadamente la mitad de los tamaños del efecto logrados en ensayos de eficacia teórica. Además, este estudio investigó 64 factores que demostraron ser influyentes para la calidad y la estabilidad de la relación en estudios anteriores, por su efecto en los resultados. Se descubrieron factores presentes en el inicio y el final de la terapia que se correlacionan considerablemente con los resultados y con la separación de la pareja en el seguimiento. Estos factores podrían incluirse en modelos de predicción sobre la mejora y la separación de la pareja. Se debaten las implicancias para la terapia de pareja y para futuras investigaciones.

[Attachment Representations, Critical Life Events and ADHD in Boys at 6 to 10 Years of Age]. / Bindungsrepräsentationen, belastende Lebensereignisse und ADHS bei Jungen im Alter von 6 bis 10 Jahren.

Attachment Representations, Critical Life Events and ADHD in Boys at 6 to 10 Years of Age The importance of the attachment theory was repeatedly pointed out in the literature for understanding children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) with regard to their emotional state. Symptoms of ADHD, like attention deficits, motor agitation and impulsivity are seen as risk factors for insecure attachment in the parent-child relationship. The acquisition of attachment representations in children with ADHD might help to describe - and individual classify - the syndromes of this behavioural disorder better. The aims of the present study are, therefore, the investigation of attachment representations and critical life events in boys with ADHD. We focused on boys only, since they are particularly prone to develop ADHD. Using the story-completion technique, we investigated whether boys with ADHD showed insecure attachment more frequently compared to boys without ADHD. 31 boys with ADHD at six to ten years of age were recruited in two different clinics. Of these, 29 % showed a secure and 71 % showed an insecure attachment representation. Within insecure attachment, the ambivalent attachment representation occurred most frequently (41 %). On average, we found 2.3 critical life events. The enhanced frequency of the ambivalent attachment representation indicates that ADHD might be linked to externalizing behaviour. The results support the hypothesis that ADHD is increasingly associated with insecure attachment. The binding theory is able to contribute to a better understanding of the emotional state in boys with ADHD.

Emotion Regulation, Relationship and Therapeutic Change in Analytical Psychology and Contemporary Psychodynamic Approaches.

All contemporary psychotherapies agree that (failing) emotion regulation is central to psychological disorders and that psychotherapy is about improving emotion regulation. In his research on the "emotion-laden" complex Jung put an emphasis on the role of failing emotion regulation in contributing to psychological disorders as well as to change in the process of psychotherapy, but he left this field of research and took a very different direction in favour of his archetype concept. Psychodynamic approaches generally argue that changes in emotion regulation are accomplished through corrective emotional experiences in the therapeutic relationship. Insights from affective neurosciences and attachment research have had a major influence on how the therapeutic relationship is constructed in contemporary psychodynamic approaches. There is a lack of similar developments in analytical psychology, which leads to substantial differences between the models of Jungian psychotherapy in contrast to other contemporary psychodynamic approaches. The implications of these differences for the practice of psychotherapy and especially the role of the therapeutic relationship are pointed out.

Toutes les psychothérapies actuelles s'accordent sur le fait que la régulation (défaillante) de l'émotion est au centre des désordres psychologiques et que la psychothérapie vise à améliorer la régulation de l'émotion. Dans sa recherche sur le « complexe à haute charge émotionnelle ¼, Jung a mis l'accent sur le rôle de la régulation défaillante de l'émotion comme participant aux désordres psychologiques ainsi qu'au changement dans le processus de psychothérapie. Mais il a abandonné ce champ de recherche et pris une direction très différente, y préférant son concept de l'archétype. Les approches psychodynamiques plaident généralement en faveur de l'idée que les changements dans la régulation de l'émotion sont atteints par les expériences émotionnelles corrective dans la relation thérapeutique. Des apports venant des neurosciences affectives et des recherches sur l'attachement ont eu une influence majeure sur comment la relation thérapeutique est construite dans les approches psychodynamiques actuelles. De tels développements font défaut dans la psychologie analytique, ce qui conduit à des différences considérables entre les modèles de psychothérapie jungienne en contraste avec les autres approches psychodynamiques actuelles. L'article souligne les conséquences de ces différences dans la pratique de la psychothérapie, tout particulièrement en ce qui concerne le rôle de la relation thérapeutique.

Todas las psicoterapias contemporáneas coinciden en que la regulación (fallida) de las emociones es central a los trastornos psicológicos y que la psicoterapia consiste en mejorar la regulación de las emociones. En su investigación sobre el complejo "de tonalidad afectiva", Jung hizo hincapié en el rol de una fallida regulación emocional en el desarrollo de los trastornos psicológicos, así como al cambio en el proceso de psicoterapia, pero abandonó este campo de investigación y tomó una dirección muy diferente en favor de su concepto de arquetipo. En general, los enfoques Psicodinámicos sostienen que los cambios en la regulación de las emociones se logran a través de experiencias emocionales correctivas en la relación terapéutica. Los conocimientos de las neurociencias afectivas y la investigación sobre el apego han tenido una gran influencia en cómo comprender la conformación de la relación terapéutica en los abordajes psicodinámicos contemporáneos. Faltan desarrollos similares en la psicología analítica, lo que conduce a diferencias sustanciales entre los modelos de la psicoterapia Junguiana en contraste con otros enfoques psicodinámicos contemporáneos. Se señalan las implicaciones de estas diferencias para la práctica de la psicoterapia y se destaca especialmente el rol de la relación terapéutica.

A New Way of Analysing Dreams on Its Profoundest Level: The Development of Motif Analysis and Phase Model (MAP) as an Extension of Structural Dream Analysis (SDA).

Dream research today assumes that there is a connection between dreams and waking life. However, the structural alteration of dream motifs in connection with the psychotherapeutic process and waking life has not yet been researched extensively. This study depicts the development of the new Motif Analysis and Phase Model (MAP), a dynamic method which allows research on the previous aspects. The following question was investigated as an accompanying key issue: can a connection be established between the course of the dream patterns and the agency of the dream ego as well as the dream contents and the course of the psychotherapies of the dreaming person as a whole? Four hypotheses were formulated and tested. The data material consists of 217 dreams of a male test subject. The motifs were analysed using Structural Dream Analysis (SDA) at first. Thereafter, the content was linked to the test subject's waking life in a guided interview. The findings show a strong connection between the dream content and the psychotherapies as well as the test subject's waking life. Five motifs with structural changes were found, through which the Phase Model with four phases was developed. At turning points, the transformative child motif also appears in the dreams. The course of the dream patterns and agency of the dream ego, however, has not changed. The results, the method and the generalisability were critically discussed and recommendations for future research were formulated.

Dream interpretation and empirical dream research - an overview of research findings and their connections with psychoanalytic dream theories.

The paper confronts psychoanalytic dream theories with the findings of empirical dream research. It summarizes the discussion in psychoanalysis around the function of dreams (e.g. as the guardian of sleep), wish-fullfilment or compensation, whether there is a difference between latent and manifest content, etc. In empirical dream research some of these questions have been investigated and the results can provide clarifications for psychoanalytic theorizing. The paper provides an overview of empirical dream research and its findings, as well as of clinical dream research in psychoanalysis, which was mainly conducted in German-speaking countries. The results are used to discuss the major questions in psychoanalytic dream theories and points out some developments in contemporary approaches which have been influenced by these insights. As a conclusion the paper attempts to formulate a revised theory of dreaming and its functions, which combines psychoanalytic thinking with research.

Amalia Revisited-A Reanalysis of Amalia's Dreams with the Method Structural Dream Analysis.

Since Freud's "The interpretation of Dreams", working with dreams has continued to play a major role in psychoanalysis, though different perspectives have developed about the function and meaning of dreams. This controversy is discussed on the background of findings in empirical as well as clinical dream research. In this paper, the research method Structural Dream Analysis is introduced which investigates the changes in structure of dreams over the course of psychotherapy. The method is applied to the specimen case Amalia X, which is considered to be the best investigated case in the history of psychotherapy research. Based on the results from this case and from other studies, the implications for psychoanalytic dream theories, namely those of Jung and Freud, are discussed.

Jungian psychotherapy, spirituality, and synchronicity: Theory, applications, and evidence base.

The aim of this article is to give an introduction to the theoretical model of Jungian psychotherapy (JP) and the role of spirituality in it, with a special focus on the concept of synchronicity (meaningful coincidences), by which the application of a spiritual viewpoint in JP will be exemplified. The paper gives an overview of the empirical studies of the effectiveness of JP and then focuses on the results of an empirical study on the occurrence of synchronistic events in psychotherapy and how they are integrated in the therapeutic process. JP can be called the prototype of a spiritually integrated psychotherapy, since Jung was the first in the development of psychotherapy who put a strong emphasis on a spiritual perspective and who succeeded to integrate spirituality into his psychotherapy approach with a coherent theoretical model in the background. Moreover, Jung's psychology became a major reference point for many other spiritual psychotherapy approaches which developed in the twentieth century. Regarding the studies on the effectiveness of JP it can be said that there is some empirical support pointing to the effectiveness of JP, but there is a strong need for further research, especially with randomized controlled trial designs. The paper presents the results of a study investigating how psychotherapists integrate synchronistic experiences and make use of these to support the therapeutic process. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Jungian theory of dreaming and contemporary dream research - findings from the research project 'Structural Dream Analysis'.

The research method 'Structural Dream Analysis' (SDA) is described which allows for systematic and objective analysis of the meaning of dreams produced by patients in Jungian psychotherapies. The method focuses especially on the relationship between the dream ego and other figures in the dream and the extent of activity of the dream ego. Five major dream patterns were identified which accounted for the majority of the dreams. The clients' dream series were dominated by one or two repetitive patterns which were closely connected to the psychological problems of the dreamers. Additionally, typical changes in the dream series' patterns could be identified which corresponded with therapeutic change. These findings support Jung's theory of dreams as providing a holistic image of the dreamer's psyche, including unconscious aspects. The implications for different psychoanalytic theories of dreaming and dream interpretation are discussed as well as implications for the continuity hypothesis.

La méthode de recherche SDA, Analyse Structurelle des Rêves, est décrite. Elle permet une analyse systématique et objective du sens des rêves produits par des patients dans des psychothérapies jungiennes. La méthode se concentre particulièrement sur la relation entre le moi du rêve et les autres personnages du rêve et le degré d'activité du moi du rêve. Cinq principaux schémas de rêve furent identifiés, qui rendent comptent de la majorité des rêves. La série de rêves des patients étaient dominée par un ou deux schémas répétitifs, rattachés de près aux problèmes psychologiques des rêveurs. De plus, il a pu être montré que les changements typiques dans les schémas de la série de rêves étaient en correspondance avec le changement thérapeutique. Ces découvertes soutiennent la théorie jungienne des rêves comme fournissant une image holistique de la psyché du rêveur, qui inclue les aspects inconscients. Les implications pour les différentes théories des rêves et de l'interprétation des rêves sont discutées ainsi que les implications concernant l'hypothèse de la continuité.

Se describe el método de investigación Análisis Estructural de los Sueños (Structural Dream Análisis/SDA), el cual permite un análisis sistemático y objetivo de los sueños producidos por pacientes en psicoterapias Junguianas. El método se focaliza especialmente en la relación entre el ego soñante y otras figuras en el sueño, y el espectro de actividad del ego soñante. Se han identificado cinco patrones mayores, los cuales responden para la mayoría de los sueños. La serie de sueños del cliente estaban dominadas por uno o dos patrones repetitivos, los cuales estaban conectados íntimamente a los problemas psicológicos de los soñantes. A su vez, cambios típicos en los patrones de las series de sueños pudieron identificarse en correspondencia a cambios terapéuticos. Estos hallazgos fundamentan la teoría de los sueños de Jung en cuanto a proveer una imagen holística de la psique del soñante que incluye los aspectos inconscientes. Se discuten implicancias para diferentes teorías psicoanalíticas acerca de los sueños y de la interpretación de los sueños, así como también implicancias para la continuidad de dicha hipótesis.

Theoretical foundations of analytical psychology: recent developments and controversies.

This article gives an introductory overview of the papers in this volume originally given at the Joint Conference of the IAAP and the University of Basel, Basel, October 18-20, 2018. The aim of the conference was to bring core concepts of analytical psychology together with theorizing and research from academic sciences, at the very place where Jung started his academic career, the University of Basel. The conference focussed on three fields: the relationship of consciousness and the unconscious and the theory of complexes; the theory of archetypes; and the status of analytical psychotherapy in contemporary psychotherapy research. The aim of the conference was to further the development of theory in analytical psychology in relation to results and insights in contiguous areas of knowledge. In the first area, contributors pointed to the solid evidence especially from the neurosciences for the psychodynamic conceptualizations of the unconscious, and also for the concept of complexes. In contrast to this, the concept of archetypes is controversial, with a majority of contributors questioning Jung's biological conceptualizations of archetypes, and speaking instead for reformulations from the perspective of cultural theory, dynamic systems theory and other approaches. In the field of psychotherapy research, contributors pointed to the profound need for conducting more empirical studies on the outcome of Jungian psychotherapy, but also for a thorough reconsideration of standard research designs in the field.

Cet article donne une vue d'ensemble des articles de ce volume, qui ont initialement été présentés à la Conférence de l'AIPA et de l'Université de Bâle, du 18 au 20 octobre 2018. Le but de la conférence était de mettre en rapport les concepts de base de la psychologie analytique avec les recherches et les avancées scientifiques, à l'endroit même où Jung commença sa carrière universitaire, l'Université de Bâle. La conférence s'est axée sur trois domaines: la relation entre conscience et inconscient et la théorie des complexes, la théorie des archétypes, et le statut de la psychothérapie analytique dans la recherche actuelle sur la psychothérapie. Le but de la conférence était de faire progresser le développement de la théorie en psychologie analytique en lien avec les résultats et les avancées dans les champs de connaissance voisins. Dans le premier domaine, les intervenants ont souligné les éléments probants venant particulièrement des neurosciences pour soutenir les conceptualisations psychodynamiques de l'inconscient, et de même pour ce qu'il en est des complexes. Par contre, le concept d'archétypes est controversé. La majorité des intervenants remettent en question les conceptualisations biologiques de Jung sur les archétypes. Ils parlent plutôt en termes de reformulations venant de la théorie culturelle, de la théorie des systèmes dynamiques ainsi que d'autres approches. Dans le champ de la recherche en psychothérapie, les intervenants ont souligné le besoin profond de mener plus d'études empiriques sur les résultats de la psychothérapie Jungienne, mais aussi d'un réexamen approfondi des modèles standards pour ces études.

El siguiente artículo ofrece una reseña introductoria de los trabajos inicialmente presentados en la Conferencia Conjunta de la IAAP y la Universidad de Basilea, Basilea Octubre 18-20, 2018. El objetivo de la Conferencia fue integrar los conceptos centrales de la psicología analítica con la teoría e investigación de las ciencias académicas, en el mismo lugar en el cual Jung comenzó su carrera académica, la Universidad de Basilea. La conferencia se focalizó en tres campos: la relación entre consciencia e inconsciente y la teoría de los complejos; la teoría de los arquetipos; y el estatus de la psicoterapia analítica en la investigación en psicoterapia contemporánea. La meta de la Conferencia fue promover el desarrollo de teoría en psicología analítica con relación a los resultados e insights de otras áreas contiguas de conocimiento. En la primer área, los autores dieron cuenta de la sólida evidencia, especialmente desde las neurociencias para las conceptualizaciones de inconsciente, y también para el concepto de complejo. En contraste con esto, el concepto de arquetipo es controversial, con una mayoría de autores cuestionando las conceptualizaciones biológicas sobre arquetipo de Jung, y en su lugar planteando reformulaciones desde las perspectivas de la teoría cultural, la teoría de los sistemas dinámicos y otros abordajes. En el campo de la investigación en psicoterapia, los autores señalaron la profunda necesidad de conducir más estudios empíricos sobre los resultados de la psicoterapia Junguiana, pero también de una reconsideración minuciosa de los diseños estándar de investigación en el campo.

The self in cyberspace. Identity formation in postmodern societies and Jung's Self as an objective psyche.

Jung's concept of the Self is compared with current theories of identity formation in post-modern society concerning the question: is the self constituted through experience and cultural influences--as it is argued by current theories in the social sciences--or is it already preformed inside the person, as Jung argues? The impact of communication media on the formation of identity in today's societies is discussed with a focus on internet communication and virtual realities. The resulting types of identities are conceptualized as polycentric which has surprising parallels to Jung's idea of the Self. The epistemology of constructivism and parallels in Jung's thought are demonstrated. Jung's work in this respect often appears contradictory in itself but this can be dealt with by a postmodern approach which accepts a plurality of truths.

Changes of Functional Optical Zone After LASIK for Hyperopia and Hyperopic Astigmatism.

PURPOSE: To evaluate which factors may influence the size of the postoperative functional optical zone after hyperopic LASIK. METHODS: Thirty-three eyes with a mean spherical equivalent of +3.55 ± 1.28 diopters (D) underwent LASIK with a Technolas 217 C-LASIK laser (Bausch & Lomb Surgical, Munich, Germany). After 1 week and 1, 4, and 12 months, the authors examined refraction, corneal refractive power by means of computerized videokeratography (Technomed C-Scan; Baesweiler, Germany), and uncorrected/corrected distance visual acuity (UDVA/CDVA). According to the degree of hyperopia, they were divided into low hyperopia (spherical equivalent ≤ 3.00 D) and high hyperopia (spherical equivalent > 3.00 D) groups. RESULTS: One year postoperatively, 82% of all eyes had a UDVA of 0.5 or better; in 88%, the spherical equivalent did not deviate more than 1.00 D from the attempted value. Three eyes were slightly undercorrected. After an initial overcorrection (-0.27 D) with subsequent regression, the refraction remained stable at +0.17 D from the fourth postoperative month (low hyperopia group: +0.14 D; high hyperopia group: +0.19 D after 1 year). After 1 year, the functional optical zone diminished by 32%; the reduction was more pronounced in eyes with higher hyperopia: -1.85 ± 1.09 mm (range: +0.5 to -3.4 mm) in the low hyperopia group (P < .0001) and -2.25 ± 1.24 mm (range: +1 to -3.9 mm) in the high hyperopia group (P < .0001). Preoperative spherical equivalent and preoperative corneal refractive power affected the postoperative size of the functional optical zone additively. CONCLUSIONS: An expected small functional optical zone in high hyperopia may not be regarded as a compelling exclusion criterion, but can induce possible side effects such as glare and halos. [J Refract Surg. 2018;34(7):476-481.].

Tele-analysis: the use of media technology in psychotherapy and its impact on the therapeutic relationship.

A growing number of approaches in psychotherapy make use of internet- and other media-based interactions. This paper discusses the impact on the therapist-client relationship of using media technology and gives an overview of the current state of the debate. It is suggested that the technical conditions of internet-based interactions produce new forms of social relationships that differ significantly from face-to-face-interactions and that unconscious, nonverbal cues get lost. Research on the therapeutic interaction making use of 'discourse linguistic' methods is presented. The loss of nonverbal cues has implications for psychotherapy in general and especially for the treatment of patients who have difficulties relying on a secure therapeutic relationship. Emotional security in interactional relationships is transmitted to a much greater extent by nonverbal cues than by verbal content; psychoanalytic methods are specialized to refer to this level of interaction. Two alternative scenarios are discussed based on the psychoanalytic theories of Winnicott and Lacan: the risk of an illusionary, idealized image of the other and the possibility that cyberspace can be used for psychological development as a transitional space.

A narratological methodology for identifying archetypal story patterns in autobiographical narratives.

Based on Jung's definition of archetype the concept 'archetypal story pattern' is developed as well as a research method drawing on narrative analysis and biographical research to identify these archetypal story patterns in life stories. Jung pointed out that personal myths, archetypal patterns found, e.g., in mythology, can govern the life course of individuals unconsciously. In the Theory of Narrative Identity comparable concepts have been mentioned but were never fully developed. In my research I try to combine Jung's concept of the archetype with the elaborated methodology of narrative analysis. Archetypes can manifest as narratives and the identity construction of a person via narrating the life story can be influenced or even totally structured by archetypal stories which give a specific form as well as a specific meaning to the person's identity. The method of extracting an underlying archetypal pattern from an autobiographical narrative is demonstrated. The results of the research on 20 autobiographical interviews and the inherent archetypal patterns are summarized. The major aim of this paper is to describe in detail the application of a well established method of the social sciences on a key concept of Jungian psychology to show that these concepts can be integrated into recent research frameworks of academic sciences. On the other hand it shows that Jungian concepts can be investigated through established and well defined research methods in empirical research settings.

Evidence for the effectiveness of jungian psychotherapy: a review of empirical studies.

Since the 1990s several research projects and empirical studies (process and outcome) on Jungian Psychotherapy have been conducted mainly in Germany and Switzerland. Prospective, naturalistic outcome studies and retrospective studies using standardized instruments and health insurance data as well as several qualitative studies of aspects of the psychotherapeutic process will be summarized. The studies are diligently designed and the results are well applicable to the conditions of outpatient practice. All the studies show significant improvements not only on the level of symptoms and interpersonal problems, but also on the level of personality structure and in every day life conduct. These improvements remain stable after completion of therapy over a period of up to six years. Several studies show further improvements after the end of therapy, an effect which psychoanalysis has always claimed. Health insurance data show that, after Jungian therapy, patients reduce health care utilization to a level even below the average of the total population. Results of several studies show that Jungian treatment moves patients from a level of severe symptoms to a level where one can speak of psychological health. These significant changes are reached by Jungian therapy with an average of 90 sessions, which makes Jungian psychotherapy an effective and cost-effective method. Process studies support Jungian theories on psychodynamics and elements of change in the therapeutic process. So finally, Jungian psychotherapy has reached the point where it can be called an empirically proven, effective method.

Symbol/Meaning paired-associate recall: an "archetypal memory" advantage?

The theory of the archetypes and the hypothesis of the collective unconscious are two of the central characteristics of analytical psychology. These provoke, however, varying reactions among academic psychologists. Empirical studies which test these hypotheses are rare. Rosen, Smith, Huston and Gonzales proposed a cognitive psychological experimental paradigm to investigate the nature of archetypes and the collective unconscious as archetypal (evolutionary) memory. In this article we report the results of a cross-cultural replication of Rosen et al. conducted in the German-speaking part of Switzerland. In short, this experiment corroborated previous findings by Rosen et al., based on English speakers, and demonstrated a recall advantage for archetypal symbol meaning pairs vs. other symbol/meaning pairings. The fact that the same pattern of results was observed across two different cultures and languages makes it less likely that they are attributable to a specific cultural or linguistic context.

Are archetypes transmitted more by culture than biology? Questions arising from conceptualizations of the archetype.

The archetype is one of the most important, if not the central concept of analytical psychology. Nevertheless from the beginning the concept was controversial. This paper attempts to review the debate around the term archetype and tries to point out some of the main problems the concept has in the light of contemporary knowledge especially in genetics and neurosciences. It becomes clear that for its use in the practice of Jungian psychotherapy the element of universality in the concept of archetypes is crucial. However, it must be concluded that there is still no firm scientific foundation for the claim that complex symbolic patterns (as for example the myth of the hero) can be transmitted in a way that every human individual has access to them. The paper attempts to show possible ways in which this transmission may be more successfully conceptualized. I would like to have Jung have the last word here. We find a hint in Jung's work where he opens up to ideas much like the ones I have developed here, and this is where Jung says: culture is part of man's nature.