Tranexamic Acid Use in the Surgical Arena: A Narrative Review.

INTRODUCTION: Tranexamic acid (TXA) is a potent antifibrinolytic drug that inhibits the activation of plasmin by plasminogen. While not a new medication, TXA has quickly gained traction across a variety of surgical subspecialties to prevent and treat bleeding. Knowledge on the use of this drug is essential for the modern surgeon to continue to provide excellent care to their patients. METHODS: A comprehensive review of the PubMed database was conducted of articles published within the last 10 y (2014-2024) relating to TXA and its use in various surgical subspecialties. Seminal studies regarding the use of TXA older than 10 y were included from the author's archives. RESULTS: Indications for TXA are not limited to trauma alone, and TXA is utilized across a variety of surgical subspecialties from neurosurgery to hepatic surgery to control hemorrhage. Overall, TXA is well tolerated with common dose-dependent adverse effects, including headache, nasal symptoms, dizziness, nausea, diarrhea, and fatigue. More severe adverse events are rare and easily mitigated by not exceeding a dose of 50 mg/kg. CONCLUSIONS: The administration of TXA as an adjunct to treat trauma saves lives. The ability of TXA to induce seizures is dose dependent with identifiable risk factors, making this serious adverse effect predictable. As for the potential for TXA to cause thrombotic events, uncertainty remains. If this association is proven to be real, the risk will likely be small, since the use of TXA is still advantageous in most situations because of its efficacy for a more common concern, bleeding.

So You Want to Do Trauma Research? A Practical Guide to Creating a Research Program at Your Home Institution.

BACKGROUND: There are 3 pillars upon which the foundation of a teaching program in health care is founded: research, education, and clinical care. However, in a busy academic trauma practice, the unfortunate reality is that research is often a low priority in the frenzy of mandates for clinical productivity. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this report is to advise hospitals on how to create a modest trauma research program that supports research interests without significantly impacting the overall clinical productivity of the department. METHODS: Relevant literature related to the development of an academic trauma research department was reviewed. Relevant articles were then compared to this manuscript to assess the novelty of the topic. RESULTS: There are 4 essential components of a trauma research program: (1) a zealot, (2) institutional commitment and support, (3) a statistician, and (4) registry data access. CONCLUSION: The creation of a trauma research program may seem like a herculean effort, but this work is necessary for institutions hoping to achieve status as a Level I/II trauma center. Following the steps outlined in this report, trauma providers can create a robust research program at their institution without sacrificing clinical productivity.

Comprehensive Review of Current Pain Management in Rib Fractures With Practical Guidelines for Clinicians.

Rib fractures are present in 15% of all traumas and 60% of patients with chest traumas. Rib fractures are not life-threatening in isolation, but they can be quite painful which leads to splinting and compromise of respiratory function. Splinting limits the ability of a patient to take a deep breath, which leads to atelectasis, atelectasis to poor secretion removal, and poor secretion removal leads to pneumonia. Pneumonia is the common pathway to respiratory failure in patients with rib fractures. It is noted that in the elderly, each rib fracture increases developing pneumonia by 27% and the risk of dying by 19%. From a public health perspective, rib fractures have long-term implications with only 59% of patients returning to work at 6 months. In this review we will examine the state of art as it currently exists with regard to the management of pain associated with rib fractures. Included in this overview will be a brief review of the anatomy of the thorax and some important physiologic concepts, the latest trends in pharmacologic and noninvasive means of managing rib pain, a special section on epidural anesthesia, some other alternative invasive methods of pain control, and a review of the recent literature on rib plating. Finally, a practical, easy to follow guideline, to manage the patient with pain from rib fractures will be presented.

The State of the Union: Trauma System Development in the United States.

Injury is both a national and international epidemic that affects people of all age, race, religion, and socioeconomic class. Injury was the fourth leading cause of death in the United States (U.S.) in 2021 and results in an incalculable emotional and financial burden on our society. Despite this, when prevention fails, trauma centers allow communities to prepare to care for the traumatically injured patient. Using lessons learned from the military, trauma care has grown more sophisticated in the last 50 years. In 1966, the first civilian trauma center was established, bringing management of injury into the new age. Now, the American College of Surgeons recognizes 4 levels of trauma centers (I-IV), with select states recognizing Level V trauma centers. The introduction of trauma centers in the U.S. has been proven to reduce morbidity and mortality for the injured patient. However, despite the proven benefits of trauma centers, the U.S. lacks a single, unified, trauma system and instead operates within a "system of systems" creating vast disparities in the level of care that can be received, especially in rural and economically disadvantaged areas. In this review we present the history of trauma system development in the U.S, define the different levels of trauma centers, present evidence that trauma systems and trauma centers improve outcomes, outline the current state of trauma system development in the U.S, and briefly mention some of the current challenges and opportunities in trauma system development in the U.S. today.

American Trauma Care: A System of Systems.

OBJECTIVE: The benefits of organized trauma systems have been well-documented during 50 years of trauma system development in the United States. Unfortunately, despite this evidence, trauma system development has occurred only sporadically in the 50 states. METHODS: The relevant literature related to trauma system design and development was reviewed based on relevance to the study. Information from these sources was summarized into a SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats) analysis. RESULTS: Strengths discovered were leadership brought forth by the American College of Surgeons Committee on Trauma and meaningful change generated from The National Academy of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine report addressing the fractionation of the nation's trauma systems, whereas weaknesses included patient outcome disparities due to the lack of a national governing authority, undertriage, underresourced rural trauma, and underfunded trauma research. Opportunities included the creation of level IV trauma centers; telemedicine; the development of rural trauma management courses; air medical transport to bring high-intensity care to the patient, particularly in rural areas; trauma research; and trauma prevention through outreach and educational programs. The following threats were determined: mass casualty incidents, motor vehicle collisions because of the high rate of motor vehicle collision deaths in the United States relative to other developed countries, and underfunded trauma systems. CONCLUSION: Much work remains to be done in the development of an American trauma system. Recommendations include implementation of trauma care governance at the federal level; national oversight and support of emergency medical services systems, particularly in rural areas with strict reporting processes for emergency medical services programs; national organization of our mass casualty response; increased federal and state funding allocated to trauma centers; a consistent model for trauma system development; and trauma research.

A Multicenter Trial of Vena Cava Filters in Severely Injured Patients.

BACKGROUND: Whether early placement of an inferior vena cava filter reduces the risk of pulmonary embolism or death in severely injured patients who have a contraindication to prophylactic anticoagulation is not known. METHODS: In this multicenter, randomized, controlled trial, we assigned 240 severely injured patients (Injury Severity Score >15 [scores range from 0 to 75, with higher scores indicating more severe injury]) who had a contraindication to anticoagulant agents to have a vena cava filter placed within the first 72 hours after admission for the injury or to have no filter placed. The primary end point was a composite of symptomatic pulmonary embolism or death from any cause at 90 days after enrollment; a secondary end point was symptomatic pulmonary embolism between day 8 and day 90 in the subgroup of patients who survived at least 7 days and did not receive prophylactic anticoagulation within 7 days after injury. All patients underwent ultrasonography of the legs at 2 weeks; patients also underwent mandatory computed tomographic pulmonary angiography when prespecified criteria were met. RESULTS: The median age of the patients was 39 years, and the median Injury Severity Score was 27. Early placement of a vena cava filter did not result in a significantly lower incidence of symptomatic pulmonary embolism or death than no placement of a filter (13.9% in the vena cava filter group and 14.4% in the control group; hazard ratio, 0.99; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.51 to 1.94; P = 0.98). Among the 46 patients in the vena cava filter group and the 34 patients in the control group who did not receive prophylactic anticoagulation within 7 days after injury, pulmonary embolism developed in none of those in the vena cava filter group and in 5 (14.7%) in the control group, including 1 patient who died (relative risk of pulmonary embolism, 0; 95% CI, 0.00 to 0.55). An entrapped thrombus was found in the filter in 6 patients. CONCLUSIONS: Early prophylactic placement of a vena cava filter after major trauma did not result in a lower incidence of symptomatic pulmonary embolism or death at 90 days than no placement of a filter. (Funded by the Medical Research Foundation of Royal Perth Hospital and others; Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry number, ACTRN12614000963628.).

Incremental cost of venous thromboembolism in trauma patients with contraindications to prophylactic anticoagulation: a prospective economic study.

Venous thromboembolism (VTE) is common in patients after major trauma. Attributable cost of VTE and whether this is related to the severity of injury have not been thoroughly investigated. We aimed to define the hospitalization costs of VTE and assess whether the costs were related to the severity of injury in this prospective economic study. Cost data of each patient enrolled in the da Vinci trial were drawn from hospital finance departments and standardized to 2020 Australian dollars (A$); and Injury Severity Score and Trauma Embolic Scoring System were used to quantify the severity of injury. Of the 223 patients who had complete financial cost data available until day-90 follow-up, 37 (16.6%) developed VTE, including upper limb (n = 3) and lower limb deep vein thrombosis (n = 25), pulmonary embolism (n = 7) and clots entrapped in a vena cava filter. The median total radiology (A$4307) as well as the hospitalization costs (A$138,526) of those who had VTE were significantly higher than those without VTE (A$1210; p < 0.001 and A$105,842; p = 0.023, respectively). The incremental hospitalization cost attributable to VTE was most apparent among those who had sustained extremely severe injuries, and estimated to be between A$43,292 (95% confidence interval [CI] 12,624-73,961, p = 0.006) and 41,680 (95%CI 7766-75,594, p = 0.016) after adjusted for Trauma Embolic Scoring System and Injury Severity Scores, respectively. VTE was common after major trauma and incurred a substantial incremental financial cost to the healthcare system, especially among those who had extremely severe injuries.

An Evaluation of Pediatric Secondary Overtriage in the Pennsylvania Trauma System.

BACKGROUND: We sought to determine the secondary overtriage rate of pediatric trauma patients admitted to pediatric trauma centers. We hypothesized that pediatric secondary overtriage (POT) would constitute a large percentage of admissions to PTC. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The Pennsylvania Trauma Outcome Study database was retrospectively queried from 2003 to 2017 for pediatric (age ≤ 18 y) trauma patients transferred to accredited pediatric trauma centers in Pennsylvania (n = 6). Patients were stratified based on discharge within (early) and beyond (late) 24 h following admission. POT was defined as patients transferred to a PTC with an early discharge. Multilevel mixed-effects logistic regression model controlling for demographic and injury severity covariates were utilized to determine the adjusted impact of injury patterns on early discharge. RESULTS: A total of 37,653 patients met inclusion criteria. For transfers, POT compromised 18,752 (49.8%) patients. Compared to POT, non-POT were more severely injured (ISS: 10 versus 6;P < 0.001) and spent less time in the ED (Min: 181 versus 207;P < 0.001). In adjusted analysis, concussion, closed skull vault fractures, supracondylar humerus fractures, and consults to neurosurgery were associated with increased odds of POT. Overall, femur fracture, child abuse evaluation, and consults to plastic surgery, orthopedics, and ophthalmology were all associated with a decreased risk of being POT. CONCLUSIONS: POT comprises 49.8% of PTC transfer admissions in Pennsylvania's trauma system. Improving community resources for management of pediatric concussion and mild TBI could result in decreased rates of POT to PTCs. Developing better inter-facility transfer guidelines and increased education of adult TC and nontrauma center hospitals is needed to decrease POT. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Epidemiologic study, level III.

Cost-effectiveness of early placement of vena cava filters to prevent symptomatic pulmonary embolism in patients with contraindications to prophylactic anticoagulant.

INTRODUCTION: Vena cava filters have been used as a primary means to prevent symptomatic pulmonary embolism (PE) in trauma patients who cannot be anticoagulated after severe injury, but the economic implications for this practice remain unclear. METHODS: Using a healthcare system perspective to analyze the a priori primary outcome of the da Vinci trial, we report the cost-effectiveness of using vena cava filters as a primary means to prevent PE in patients who have contraindications to prophylactic anticoagulation after major trauma. RESULTS: Of the 240 patients enrolled, complete, prospectively collected, hospital cost data during the entire hospital stay - including costs for the filter, medical/nursing/allied health staff, medical supplies, pathology tests, and radiological imaging - were available in 223 patients (93%). Patients allocated to the filter group (n = 114) were associated with a reduced risk of PE (0.9%) compared to those in the control group (n = 109, 5.5%; p = 0.048); and the filter's benefit was more pronounced among those who could not be anticoagulated within 7 days (filter: 0% vs control: 16%, Bonferroni-corrected p = 0.02). Overall, the cost needed to prevent one PE was high (AUD $379,760), but among those who could not be anticoagulated within 7 days, the costs to prevent one PE (AUD $36,156; ~ USD $26,032) and gain one quality-adjusted life-year (AUD $30,903; ~ USD $22,250) were substantially lower. CONCLUSION: The cost of using a vena cava filter to prevent PE for those who have contraindications to prophylactic anticoagulation within 3 days of injury is prohibitive, unless such contraindications remain for longer than 7 days. (Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry no.: ACTRN12614000963628).

Practice Variation in Vena Cava Filter Use Among Trauma Centers in the National Trauma Database.

BACKGROUND: Agreement regarding indications for vena cava filter (VCF) utilization in trauma patients has been in flux since the filter's introduction. As VCF technology and practice guidelines have evolved, the use of VCF in trauma patients has changed. This study examines variation in VCF placement among trauma centers. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A retrospective study was performed using data from the National Trauma Data Bank (2005-2014). Trauma centers were grouped according to whether they placed VCFs during the study period (VCF+/VCF-). A multivariable probit regression model was fit to predict the number of VCFs used among the VCF+ centers (the expected [E] number of VCF per center). The ratio of observed VCF placement (O) to expected VCFs (O:E) was computed and rank ordered to compare interfacility practice variation. RESULTS: In total, 65,482 VCFs were placed by 448 centers. Twenty centers (4.3%) placed no VCFs. The greatest predictors of VCF placement were deep vein thrombosis, spinal cord paralysis, and major procedure. The strongest negative predictor of VCF placement was admission during the year 2014. Among the VCF+ centers, O:E varied by nearly 500%. One hundred fifty centers had an O:E greater than one. One hundred sixty-nine centers had an O:E less than one. CONCLUSIONS: Substantial variation in practice is present in VCF placement. This variation cannot be explained only by the characteristics of the patients treated at these centers but could be also due to conflicting guidelines, changing evidence, decreasing reimbursement rates, or the culture of trauma centers.

A Comprehensive Review of the Outcome for Patients Readmitted to the ICU Following Trauma and Strategies to Decrease Readmission Rates.

In recent years, there has been an emphasis on evaluating the outcomes of patients who have experienced an intensive care unit (ICU) readmission. This may in part be due to the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act's Hospital Readmission Reduction Program which imposes financial sanctions on hospitals who have excessive readmission rates, informally known as bounceback rates. The financial cost associated with avoidable bounceback combined with the potentially preventable expenses can result in unnecessary financial strain. Within the hospital readmissions, there is a subset pertaining to unplanned readmission to the ICU. Although there have been studies regarding ICU bounceback, there are limited studies regarding ICU bounceback of trauma patients and even fewer proven strategies. Although many studies have concluded that respiratory complications were the most common factor influencing ICU readmissions, there is inconclusive evidence in terms of a broadly applicable strategy that would facilitate management of these patients. The purpose of this review is to highlight the outcomes of patients readmitted to the ICU and to provide an overview of possible strategies to aid in decreasing ICU readmission rates.

An epidemiologic overview of 13 years of firearm hospitalizations in Pennsylvania.

BACKGROUND: Gun violence is a controversial public health issue plagued by a lack of recent research. We sought to provide a 13-y overview of firearm hospitalizations in Pennsylvania, analyzing trends in mode, intent, and outcome. We hypothesized that no adjusted change in mortality or functional status at discharge (FSD) would be observed for gunshot wound (GSW) victims over the study period. METHODS: All admissions to the Pennsylvania Trauma Outcome Study database from 2003 to 2015 were queried. GSWs were identified by external cause-of-injury codes. Collected variables included patient demographics, firearm type, intent (assault and attempted suicide), FSD, and mortality. Multilevel mixed-effects logistic regression models and ordinal regression analyses using generalized linear mixed models assessed the impact of admission year (continuous) on adjusted mortality and FSD score, respectively. Significance was set at P < 0.05. RESULTS: Of the 462,081 patients presenting to Pennsylvania trauma centers from 2003 to 2015, 19,342 were GSWs (4.2%). Handguns were the most common weapon of injury (n = 7007; 86.7%) among cases with specified firearm type. Most GSWs were coded as assaults (n = 15,415; 79.7%), with suicide attempts accounting 1866 hospitalizations (9.2%). Suicide attempts were most prevalent among young and middle-aged white males, whereas assaults were more common in young black males. Rates of firearm hospitalizations decreased over time (test of trend P = 0.001); however, admission year was not associated with improved adjusted survival (adjusted odds ratio: 0.99, 95% confidence interval: 0.97-1.01; P = 0.353) or FSD (adjusted odds ratio: 0.99, 95% confidence interval: 0.98-1.00; P = 0.089) while controlling for demographic and injury severity covariates. CONCLUSIONS: Temporal trends in outcomes suggest rates of firearm hospitalizations are declining in Pennsylvania; however, outcomes remain unchanged. To combat this epidemic, a multidisciplinary, demographic-specific approach to prevention should be the focus of future scientific pursuits.

The Effect of Time to International Normalized Ratio Reversal on Intracranial Hemorrhage Evolution in Patients With Traumatic Brain Injury.

The incidence of geriatric traumatic brain injury (TBI) is increasing throughout the United States, with many of these patients taking anticoagulation (AC) medication. The purpose of this investigation was to determine the effect of time to international normalized ratio (INR) reversal on intracranial hemorrhage evolution in TBI patients taking prehospital AC medication. We hypothesized that rapid reversal of INR improves outcomes of head-injured patients taking AC medication. Admissions to a Level II trauma center between February 2011 and December 2013 were reviewed. Patients presenting with an initial INR of 2.0 or more, computed tomographic scan positive for intracranial hemorrhage, and INR reversal to less than 1.5 in hospital were included. Patients with nontraumatic intracranial hemorrhage were excluded. Reversal of INR was achieved using some combination of fresh frozen plasma, prothrombin complex concentrate, and vitamin K. A binary logistic regression model assessed the adjusted impact of rapid INR reversal on intracranial hemorrhage evolution. Significance was defined as p < .05. One hundred subjects were included. Four patients with nontraumatic intracranial hemorrhage were excluded, resulting in a final study population of 96 patients. The most common intracranial hemorrhage in the study population was subarachnoid hemorrhage (71.9%), followed by subdural hemorrhage (35.4%). Reversal of INR of less than 5 hr was not associated with intracranial hemorrhage evolution; however, reversal of less than 10 hr was found to be associated with a decreased odds ratio for intracranial hemorrhage evolution (p = .043). Rapid reversal of elevated INR levels (<10 hr) may decrease intracranial hemorrhage evolution in TBI patients taking prehospital AC medication.

Omega-3 Fatty Acid Supplementation and Warfarin: A Lethal Combination in Traumatic Brain Injury.

Polyunsaturated fatty acids such as omega-3 eicosapentaenoic acid and omega-6 docosahexaenoic acid, found in over-the-counter fish oil supplements, are often consumed for their beneficial, prophylactic, anti-inflammatory effects. Although the mechanisms of action are not fully known, a diet rich in polyunsaturated fats may reduce the risk of hyperlipidemia, atherosclerosis, high low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels, hypertension, and inflammatory diseases. Masked by its many benefits, the risks of omega-3 fatty acid supplementation are often underappreciated, particularly its ability to inhibit platelet aggregation and promote bleeding in patients taking anticoagulant medications. The following details the clinical case of an elderly patient taking warfarin and fish oil supplementation whose warfarin-induced coagulopathy could not be reversed after suffering blunt head trauma.

A Preliminary Analysis of Compassion Satisfaction and Compassion Fatigue With Considerations for Nursing Unit Specialization and Demographic Factors.

Compassion fatigue (CF), or vicarious traumatization, is a state of physical/emotional distress that results from caring for those experiencing pain. We sought to characterize levels of CF in intensive care unit (ICU) and oncology nursing populations with subanalyses comparing specific personal/professional demographic factors. The Professional Quality of Life (ProQOL) scale, a validated tool for assessing CF, burnout (BO), and compassion satisfaction (CS), was distributed to the ICU and oncology divisions of a community hospital. Demographic data and ProQOL scale scores were collected and compared within specialty and gender subgroups. Two-sample t tests and regression analyses were used to compare groups. Statistical significance was defined as p < .05. A total of 86 nurses submitted completed surveys able to be analyzed. Levels of CS were significantly lower (p = .023) and levels of BO were significantly higher (p = .029) in ICU nurses than in oncology nurses. Male nurses exhibited significantly higher CS (p = .001) and significantly lower BO (p = .021) and CF (p = .014) than female nurses. Intensive care unit nurses and female nurses from both ICU and oncology specialties may be at increased risk for developing a poorer overall ProQOL and CF.

A bitter pill to swallow: dysphagia in cervical spine injury.

BACKGROUND: Dysphagia is a common complication after cervical spine trauma with spinal cord injury. We sought to characterize the prevalence of dysphagia within a total cervical spinal injury (CSI) population, considering the implications of spinal cord injury status and age on dysphagia development. We hypothesized that while greater rates of dysphagia would be found in geriatric and spinal cord-injured subgroups, all patients presenting with CSI would be at heightened risk for swallowing dysfunction. METHODS: All trauma admissions to a level II trauma center from January 2010 to April 2014 with CSI were retrospectively reviewed. CSI was classified as any ligamentous or cervical spinous fracture with or without cord injury. Patients failing a formal swallow evaluation were considered dysphagic. The implications of dysphagia development on age and spinal cord injury status were assessed in univariate and multivariate analyses. RESULTS: A total of 481 patients met study inclusion criteria, of which 123 (26%) developed dysphagia. Within the dysphagic subpopulation, 90 patients (73%) were geriatric, and 23 (19%) sustained spinal cord injury. The dysphagic subpopulation was predominantly free from spinal cord injury (81%). Multivariate analyses found age (adjusted odds ratio: 1.06; 95% confidence interval 1.04-1.07; P < 0.001) and spinal cord injury (adjusted odds ratio: 2.69; 95% confidence interval 1.30-5.56; P = 0.008) to be significant predictors of dysphagia development. CONCLUSIONS: Despite spinal cord-injured patients being at increased risk for dysphagia, most of the dysphagic subpopulation was free from spinal cord injury. Geriatric and CSI patients with or without cord injury should be at heightened suspicion for dysphagia development.