Clinical and Economic Impact of COVID-19 on Agricultural Workers, Guatemala1.

We evaluated clinical and socioeconomic burdens of respiratory disease in banana farm workers in Guatemala. We offered all eligible workers enrollment during June 15-December 30, 2020, and annually, then tracked them for influenza-like illnesses (ILI) through self-reporting to study nurses, sentinel surveillance at health posts, and absenteeism. Workers who had ILI submitted nasopharyngeal swab specimens for testing for influenza virus, respiratory syncytial virus, and SARS-CoV-2, then completed surveys at days 0, 7, and 28. Through October 10, 2021, a total of 1,833 workers reported 169 ILIs (12.0 cases/100 person-years), and 43 (25.4%) were laboratory-confirmed infections with SARS-CoV-2 (3.1 cases/100 person-years). Workers who had SARS-CoV-2‒positive ILIs reported more frequent anosmia, dysgeusia, difficulty concentrating, and irritability and worse clinical and well-being severity scores than workers who had test result‒negative ILIs. Workers who had positive results also had greater absenteeism and lost income. These results support prioritization of farm workers in Guatemala for COVID-19 vaccination.

Community perceptions of vaccine advocacy for children under five in rural Guatemala.

Historically, partnerships with community leaders (e.g., religious leaders, teachers) have been critical to building vaccination confidence, but leaders may be increasingly vaccine hesitant. In rural Guatemala, the extent of vaccine hesitancy among community leaders is unclear, as are their perceptions of advocacy for childhood vaccines. We sought to: (i) compare Guatemalan religious leaders' and community leaders' attitudes toward childhood vaccines, (ii) describe leaders' experiences and comfort with vaccination advocacy, and (iii) describe community members' trust in them as vaccination advocates. In 2019, we surveyed religious leaders, other community leaders, and parents of children under five in rural Guatemala. We recorded participant demographic information and assessed participant vaccine hesitancy regarding childhood vaccines. We analyzed data descriptively and via adjusted regression modeling. Our sample included 50 religious leaders, 50 community leaders, and 150 community members (response rate: 99%); 14% of religious leaders and community leaders were vaccine hesitant, similar to community members (P = 0.71). In the prior year, 47% of leaders had spoken about vaccines in their formal role; 85% felt responsible to do so. Only 28% of parents trusted politicians "a lot" for vaccine advice, versus doctors (72%; P < 0.01), nurses (62%; P < 0.01), religious leaders (49%; P < 0.01), and teachers (48%; P < 0.01). In this study, religious leaders and community leaders were willing but incompletely engaged vaccination advocates. Most community members trusted doctors and nurses a lot for vaccination advice; half trusted teachers and religious leaders similarly. Public health officials in rural Guatemala can complement efforts by doctors and nurses through partnerships with teachers and religious leaders to increase vaccination confidence and delivery.

COVID-19 Attitudes and Vaccine Hesitancy among an Agricultural Community in Southwest Guatemala: A Cross-Sectional Survey.

Despite offering free-of-charge COVID-19 vaccines starting July 2021, Guatemala has one of the lowest vaccination rates in Latin America. From 28 September 2021 to 11 April 2022, we conducted a cross-sectional survey of community members, adapting a CDC questionnaire to evaluate COVID-19 vaccine access and hesitancy. Of 233 participants ≥ 12 years, 127 (55%) received ≥1 dose of COVID-19 and 4 (2%) reported prior COVID-19 illness. Persons ≥ 12 years old who were unvaccinated (n = 106) were more likely to be female (73% vs. 41%, p < 0.001) and homemakers (69% vs. 24%, p < 0.01) compared with vaccinated participants (n = 127). Among those ≥18 years, the main reported motivation for vaccination among vaccinated participants was to protect the health of family/friends (101/117, 86%); on the other hand, 40 (55%) unvaccinated persons reported little/no confidence in public health institutions recommending COVID-19 vaccination. Community- and/or home-based vaccination programs, including vaccination of families through the workplace, may better reach female homemakers and reduce inequities and hesitancy.

Repeated Rapid Active Sampling Surveys Demonstrated a Rapidly Changing Zika Seroprevalence among Children in a Rural Dengue-endemic Region in Southwest Guatemala during the Zika Epidemic (2015-2016).

Although Central America is largely dengue virus (DENV)-endemic, the 2015-2016 Zika virus (ZIKV) pandemic brought new urgency to develop surveillance approaches capable of characterizing the rapidly changing disease burden in resource-limited settings. We conducted a pediatric DENV surveillance study in rural Guatemala, including serial cross-sectional surveys from April through September 2015 (Survey 1), in October-November 2015 (Survey 2), and January-February 2016 (Survey 3). Serum underwent DENV IgM MAC ELISA and polymerase chain reaction testing. Using banked specimens from Surveys 2 and 3, we expanded testing to include DENV 1-4 and ZIKV microneutralization (MN50), DENV NS1 IgG ELISA, and ZIKV anti-NS1 antibody Blockage of Binding (BoB) ELISA testing. Demographic risk factors for ZIKV BoB positivity were explored using multivariable generalized linear regression models. Of Survey 2 and 3 samples available (N = 382), DENV seroprevalence slightly increased (+1%-10% depending on the assay) during the surveillance period and increased with age. In contrast, ZIKV seroprevalence consistently increased over the 3-month period, including from 6% to 34% (P < 0.0001) and 10%-37% (P < 0.0001) using the MN50 ≥100 and BoB ELISA assays, respectively. Independent risk factors for ZIKV seropositivity included older age (prevalence ratio (PR)/year = 1.12, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.07-1.17) and primary caregiver literacy (PR = 2.80, CI = 1.30-6.06). Rapid active surveillance (RAS) surveys demonstrated a nearly 30% increase in ZIKV prevalence and a slight (≤ 10%) increase in DENV seroprevalence from October to November 2015 to January to February 2016 in rural southwest Guatemala, regardless of serologic assay used. RAS surveys may be a useful "off-the-shelf" tool to characterize arboviruses and other emerging pathogens rapidly in resource-limited settings.

Challenges and lessons learned from the rapid operationalization of a prospective cohort to study the natural history and neurodevelopmental outcomes of postnatal Zika virus infection among infants and children in rural Guatemala.

During the course of the 2015-2017 outbreak of Zika virus (ZIKV) in the Americas, the emerging virus was recognized as a congenital infection that could damage the developing brain. As the Latin American ZIKV outbreak advanced, the scientific and public health community questioned if this newly recognized neurotropic flavivirus could affect the developing brain of infants and young children infected after birth. We report here the study design, methods and the challenges and lessons learned from the rapid operationalization of a prospective natural history cohort study aimed at evaluating the potential neurological and neurodevelopmental effects of postnatal ZIKV infection in infants and young children, which had become epidemic in Central America. This study enrolled a cohort of 500 mothers and their infants, along with nearly 400 children 1.5-3.5 years of age who were born during the initial phase of the ZIKV epidemic in a rural area of Guatemala. Our solutions and lessons learned while tackling real-life challenges may serve as a guide to other researchers carrying out studies of emerging infectious diseases of public health priority in resource-constrained settings.

High SARS-CoV-2 Seroprevalence and Rapid Neutralizing Antibody Decline among Agricultural Workers in Rural Guatemala, June 2020-March 2021.

Essential agricultural workers work under occupational conditions that may increase the risk of SARS-CoV-2 exposure and transmission. Data from an agricultural worker cohort in Guatemala, and anti-SARS-CoV-2 nucleocapsid IgG (anti-N IgG) testing were used to estimate past infections and analyze risk factors associated with seropositivity at enrollment and association with SARS-CoV-2 infection. The stability of neutralizing antibody (NAb) responses were assessed in a subset of participants. The adjusted relative risk (aRR) for seroprevalence at enrollment was estimated accounting for correlations within worksites. At enrollment, 616 (46.2%) of 1334 (93.2%) participants had anti-N IgG results indicating prior SARS-CoV-2 infection. A cough ≤ 10 days prior to enrollment (aRR = 1.28, 95% CI: 1.13−1.46) and working as a packer (aRR = 2.00, 95% CI: 1.67−2.38) or packing manager within the plants (aRR = 1.82, 95% CI: 1.36−2.43) were associated with increased risk of seropositivity. COVID-19 incidence density among seronegative workers was 2.3/100 Person-Years (P-Y), higher than seropositive workers (0.4/100 P-Y). Most workers with follow-up NAb testing (65/77, 84%) exhibited a 95% average decrease in NAb titers in <6 months. While participants seropositive at baseline were less likely to experience a symptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection during follow-up, NAb titers rapidly waned, underscoring the need for multipronged COVID-19 prevention strategies in the workplace, including vaccination.

Clinical and Economic Impact of COVID-19 on Plantation Workers: Preliminary Results from the Guatemala Agricultural Workers and Respiratory Illness Impact (AGRI) Study.

We evaluated the clinical and socioeconomic burdens of respiratory disease in a cohort of Guatemalan banana plantation workers. All eligible workers were offered enrollment from June 15-December 30, 2020, and annually, then followed for influenza-like illnesses (ILI) through: 1) self-reporting to study nurses, 2) sentinel surveillance at health posts, and 3) absenteeism. Workers with ILI submitted nasopharyngeal swabs for influenza, RSV, and SARS-CoV-2 testing, then completed surveys at days 0, 7, and 28. Through October 10, 2021, 1,833 workers developed 169 ILIs (12.0/100 person-years) and 43 (25.4%) of these ILIs were laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 (3.1/100 person-years). Workers with SARS-CoV-2-positive ILI reported more anosmia (p<0.01), dysgeusia (p<0.01), difficulty concentrating (p=0.01), and irritability (p=0.01), and greater clinical and well-being severity scores (Flu-iiQ) than test-negative ILIs; they also had greater absenteeism (p<0.01) and lost income (median US$127.1, p<0.01). These results support the prioritization of Guatemalan farm workers for COVID-19 vaccination.

Adapting and piloting a vaccine hesitancy questionnaire in rural Guatemala.

INTRODUCTION: We sought to (i) adapt a Spanish-language vaccine hesitancy (VH) tool to rural Guatemala, (ii) pilot the tool with 150 parents of children ≤ 5 years, and (iii) measure if parent scores associated with child under-vaccination. METHODS: We used implementation science to develop the adapted Guatemalan Vaccine Attitudes (GuaVA) tool, piloting it with 150 parents of children ≤ 5 years, and performing descriptive and adjusted regression analyses. RESULTS: Of 150 parents (response rate 99%), 55% (n = 83) of parents expressed a degree of VH. Children of parents with highly hesitant scores (n = 22) had 2.5 times the odds (OR 2.5; 95% CI: 1.2, 5.4) of being undervaccinated at 19 months, referent children of non-hesitant parents (n = 67). CONCLUSIONS: Vaccine hesitancy may be more prevalent in rural Guatemala than suspected. Implementation science facilitated the adaptation of a VH tool to rural Guatemala and may assist investigators in other settings.