Radiotherapy treatment volumes for oligorecurrent nodal prostate cancer: a systematic review.

BACKGROUND: Radiotherapy is an emerging treatment strategy for nodal oligorecurrent prostate cancer (PCa) patients. However, large heterogeneities exist in the RT regimens used, with series reporting the use of elective nodal radiotherapy (ENRT) strategies and others the delivery of focal treatments to the relapsing nodes with Stereotactic Body Radiotherapy (SBRT). In this systematic review of the literature we compared the oncological outcomes and toxicity of the different RT regimens for nodal oligorecurrent PCa patients, with the aim of defining the optimal RT target volume in this setting. METHODS: We performed a systemic search on the Pubmed database to identify articles reporting on the use of ENRT or SBRT for oligometastatic PCa with nodal recurrence. RESULTS: Twenty-two articles were analyzed, including four prospective phase II trials (3 with SBRT and 1 with ENRT). Focal SBRT, delivered with an involved node, involved site, and involved field modality, was the most commonly used strategy with 2-year progression-free survival (PFS) rates ranging from 16 to 58% and a very low toxicity profile. Improved PFS rates were observed with ENRT strategies (52-80% at 3 years) compared to focal SBRT, despite a slightly higher toxicity rate. One ongoing randomized phase II trial is comparing both modalities in patients with nodal oligorecurrent PCa. CONCLUSIONS: With a large variability in patterns of practice, the optimal RT strategy remains to be determined in the setting of nodal oligorecurrent PCa. Ongoing randomized trials and advances in translational research will help to shed light on the best management for these patients. .

Impact of hydrogel spacer injections on interfraction prostate motion during prostate cancer radiotherapy.

Background The dosimetric advantage of prostate-rectum spacers to displace the anterior rectal wall outside of the high-dose radiation regions has been clearly established in prostate cancer radiotherapy (RT). The aim of this study was to assess the impact of hydrogel spacer (HS) in the interfraction prostate motion in patients undergoing RT for prostate cancer. Material and methods Twenty prostate cancer patients implanted with three fiducial markers (FM) with (n = 10) or without (n = 10) HS were analyzed. Displacements between the prostate isocenter based on the FM's position and the bony anatomy were quantified in the left-right (LR), anterior-posterior (AP), superior-inferior (SI) axes by offline analyses of 122 cone beam computed tomography scans. Group systematic (M), systematic (Σ) and random (σ) setup errors were determined. Results In patients with or without HS, the overall mean interfraction prostate displacements were 0.4 versus -0.4 mm (p = 0.0001), 0.6 versus 0.6 mm (p = 0.85), and -0.6 mm versus -0.3 mm (p = 0.48) for the LR, AP, and SI axes, respectively. Prostate displacements >5 mm in the AP and SI directions were similar for both groups. No differences in M, Σ and σ setup errors were observed in the three axes between HS + or HS- patients. Conclusions HS implantation does not significantly influence the interfraction prostate motion in patients treated with RT for prostate cancer. The major expected benefit of HS is a reduction of the high-dose levels to the rectal wall without influence in prostate immobilization.

Androgen deprivation and high-dose radiotherapy for oligometastatic prostate cancer patients with less than five regional and/or distant metastases.

BACKGROUND: Substantial survival may be observed with oligometastatic prostate cancer. Combining androgen deprivation (AD) and high-dose external beam radiotherapy (RT) to isolated regional or distant lesions may be proposed for these patients and the outcome of this strategy is the purpose of the present report. MATERIAL AND METHODS: From 2003 to 2010, 50 prostate cancer patients were diagnosed with synchronous (n = 7) or metachronous (n = 43) oligometastases (OM). Among the relapsing patients, the recurrence occurred after radical prostatectomy in 33 patients and curative RT (± AD) in 10 patients. The median age at diagnosis was 63 years (range, 48-82). All patients underwent a bone scan and 18F-choline or 11C-acetate PET-CT at the time of diagnosis or relapse, showing regional and/or distant nodal and bone and/or visceral metastases in 33 and 17 patients, respectively. The median delivered effective dose was 64 Gy. All but one patient received neo-adjuvant and concomitant AD. RESULTS: After a median follow-up of 31 months (range, 9-89) the three-year biochemical relapse-free survival (bRFS), clinical failure-free survival, and overall survival rates were 54.5%, 58.6% and 92%, respectively. No grade 3 toxicity was observed. Improved bRFS was found to be significantly associated with the number of OM. The three-year bRFS was 66.5% versus 36.4% for patients with 1 and > 1 OMs (p = 0.031). A normalised total dose (NTD in 2 Gy/fraction, alpha/beta = 2 Gy) above 64 Gy was also correlated with a better three-year bRFS compared to lower doses: 65% vs. 41.8%, respectively (p = 0.005). On multivariate analysis, only the NTD > 64 Gy retained statistical significance (HR: 0.37, 95% CI 0.15-0.93). CONCLUSION: Oligometastatic patients may be successfully treated with short AD and high-dose irradiation to the metastatic lesions. High dose improves bRFS. Such a treatment strategy may hypothetically succeed to prolong the failure-free interval between two consecutive AD courses.

Urinary toxicity after salvage re-irradiation for prostate cancer local failure after definitive radiotherapy: a clinical and dosimetric prognostic factors analysis.

Purpose: Predictors of long-term toxicity after prostate cancer re-irradiation are scarce. In this study, we retrospectively assessed the impact of clinical/dosimetric data on late genitourinary (GU) toxicity on fourteen radio-recurrent prostate cancer patients treated with salvage radiotherapy (RT). Material and methods: To identify dose parameters and clinical factors potentially associated to severe long-term GU toxicity, study population was stratified in two groups according to toxicity, including one low-grade group (grade ≤ 2, n = 6) and one high-grade group (grade ≥ 3, n = 8). Dose prescription at primary and salvage-RT in 2 Gy equivalent dose (EQD2Gy) per fraction, treatment techniques, and clinical factors potentially associated to severe GU toxicity were analyzed. Results: At salvage-RT, the median EQD2Gy α/ß = 3 Gy was significantly higher in the high-toxicity group (85 Gy, range, 71-85 Gy) compared to the low-toxicity group (77 Gy, range, 61-85 Gy) (p = 0.01). All patients treated using salvage-RT with a brachytherapy (BT) boost and with a baseline Framingham risk-score of > 20% (n = 8) developed severe GU toxicity, while none of the remaining patients developed a grade 3 or more GU toxicity (p = 0.0003). V70 > 0 and V75 > 0 of the primary treatment were associated with an increased rate of toxicity. Conclusions: Our analysis shows that the delivery of doses up to 75-80 Gy (EQD2Gy, α/ß = 3 Gy) in salvage-RT can be safe in terms of severe GU toxicity avoidance. Furthermore, concomitant cardiovascular comorbidities seem to increase the risk to develop severe GU toxicity.

High-dose-rate brachytherapy boost to the dominant intra-prostatic tumor region: hemi-irradiation of prostate cancer.

BACKGROUND: To assess the feasibility, toxicity, and outcome of prostate hemi-irradiation with a high-dose-rate brachytherapy (HDR-BT) boost for patients presumed to harbor dominant intra-prostatic tumors in a single lobe. METHODS: After 3D conformal external radiotherapy (3DCRT) to 64-64.4 Gy, 77 patients with non-metastatic locally aggressive prostate cancer have been treated from 2000 to 2004, with HDR-BT using temporary open MRI-guided (192) Ir implants, to escalate the dose in the boost region. Twenty patients (26%) had one lobe involvement (i.e., one sided endorectal MRI, rectal examination, and biopsies) and were boosted to one side of the gland only. A dose of 12, 14, and 16 Gy in two fractions was delivered to 5, 6, and 9 patients, respectively. RESULTS: After a median follow-up 69 months, no differences in late rectal toxicity were observed between the unilaterally and bilaterally irradiated cohorts. Although, grade 2 late urinary toxicity was worse in the hemi-irradiated group (P = 0.03), severe grade ≥3 late urinary toxicity at 5 years was not different: 10% versus 8.8% in the unilaterally and bilaterally irradiated cohorts, respectively. Grade 4 late urinary toxicity, however, was exclusively observed in patients boosted to both lobes (5/57, 8.8%). Five-year biochemical relapse-free survival was 79.7% versus 70.5% for the unilateral and bilateral boost groups, respectively (P = 0.99). CONCLUSION: Prostate hemi-irradiation with a HDR-BT boost to the dominant tumor region may be considered when rectal examination, MRI, and biopsies suggest one lobe involvement. Nevertheless, strict dosimetric optimization is needed in order to further reduce the risk of late severe toxicity.

Sexual organ-sparing with hydrogel spacer injections for rectal cancer radiotherapy: a feasibility pilot study.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this pilot study was to investigate in two rectal cancer patients undergoing neoadjuvant chemo-radiotherapy (nCRT) the implant feasibility and dosimetric benefit in sexual organ-sparing of an injectable, absorbable, radiopaque hydrogel spacer. METHODS: Two rectal cancer patients (one male and one female) underwent hydrogel implant between rectum and vagina/prostate before nCRT and curative surgery. A CT scan was performed before and after injection and a comparative dosimetric study was performed testing a standard (45/50 Gy) and a dose escalated (46/55.2 Gy) schedule. RESULTS: In both patients, the spacer implant in the recto-prostatic or recto-vaginal space was feasible and well tolerated. For the male, the dosimetric benefit with spacer was minimal for sexual organs. For the female however, doses delivered to the vagina were significantly reduced with spacer with a mean reduction of more than 5 Gy for both regimens. CONCLUSIONS: For organ preservation protocols and selected sexually active female patients, use of hydrogel spacers can be considered to spare sexual organs from the high radiotherapy dose levels. ADVANCES IN KNOWLEDGE: For females with advanced rectal tumor, a spacer implant between the rectum and the vagina before nCRT is feasible and reduces doses delivered to the vagina.

Bilateral metallic hip implants: Are avoidance sectors necessary for pelvic VMAT treatments?

PURPOSE: Metallic hip implants (MHI) are common in elderly patients. For pelvic cancers radiotherapy, conventional approaches consist of MHI avoidance during treatment planning, which leads, especially in case of bilateral MHI, to a decreased quality or increased complexity of the treatment plan. The aim of this study is to investigate the necessity of using avoidance sectors (AvSe) using a 2-arcs coplanar pelvic volumetric modulated arc-therapy (VMAT) planning. METHODS: We evaluated: (1) The dose calculation error of a static 6MV open beam traversing a MHI; (2) The magnitude of an error's decrease within the planning target volume (PTV) for a 360° VMAT treatment without AvSe as compared to the static open beam; (3) The dosimetric influence of MHI misalignment generated by patient's repositioning rolls during image-guided radiotherapy (IGRT). RESULTS: (1) In the static 6MV beam configuration, for distances between 0.5cm and 6cm from the MHI, the median (maximum, number of points) dose calculation error was -1.55% (-2.5%, 11); (2) Compared to the static open beam, in the 360° VMAT treatment without AvSe a simulated error was decreased by a factor of 4.4/2.4 (median/minimum); (3) MHI anterior-posterior misalignment exceeding 0.6cm, resulted in error at PTV surface of >2%. CONCLUSIONS: A standard 2 coplanar arcs 360° VMAT treatment, with dedicated artifact reduction algorithms applied, decreased the error of static beam traversing MHI, in patients presenting a bilateral MHI and might be used to treat the pelvic region without MHI avoidance.

Single-fraction prostate stereotactic body radiotherapy: Dose reconstruction with electromagnetic intrafraction motion tracking.

PURPOSE: To reconstruct the dose delivered during single-fraction urethra-sparing prostate stereotactic body radiotherapy (SBRT) accounting for intrafraction motion monitored by intraprostatic electromagnetic transponders (EMT). METHODS: We analyzed data of 15 patients included in the phase I/II "ONE SHOT" trial and treated with a single fraction of 19 Gy to the planning target volume (PTV) and 17 Gy to the urethra planning risk volume. During delivery, prostate motion was tracked with implanted EMT. SBRT was interrupted when a 3-mm threshold was trespassed and corrected unless the offset was transient. Motion-encoded reconstructed (MER) plans were obtained by splitting the original plans into multiple sub-beams with isocenter shifts based on recorded EMT positions, mimicking prostate motion during treatment. We analyzed intrafraction motion and compared MER to planned doses. RESULTS: The median EMT motion range (±SD) during delivery was 0.26 ± 0.09, 0.22 ± 0.14 and 0.18 ± 0.10 cm in the antero-posterior, supero-inferior, and left-right axes, respectively. Treatment interruptions were needed for 8 patients because of target motion beyond limits in the antero-posterior (n = 6) and/or supero-inferior directions (n = 4). Comparing MER vs. original plan there was a median relative dose difference of -1.9% (range, -7.9 to -1.0%) and of +0.5% (-0.3-1.7%) for PTV D98% and D2%, respectively. The clinical target volume remained sufficiently covered with a median D98% difference of -0.3% (-1.6-0.5%). Bladder and rectum dosimetric parameters showed significant differences between original and MER plans, but mostly remained within acceptable limits. CONCLUSIONS: The dosimetric impact of intrafraction prostate motion was minimal for target coverage for single-fraction prostate SBRT with real-time electromagnetic tracking combined with beam gating.

Dose-escalated volumetric modulated arc therapy for total marrow irradiation: A feasibility dosimetric study with 4DCT planning and simultaneous integrated boost.

PURPOSE: To evaluate the planning feasibility of dose-escalated total marrow irradiation (TMI) with simultaneous integrated boost (SIB) to the active bone marrow (ABM) using volumetric modulated arc therapy (VMAT), and to assess the impact of using planning organs at risk (OAR) volumes (PRV) accounting for breathing motion in the optimization. METHODS: Five patients underwent whole-body CT and thoraco-abdominal 4DCT. A planning target volume (PTV) including all bones and ABM was contoured on each whole-body CT. PRV of selected OAR (liver, heart, kidneys, lungs, spleen, stomach) were determined with 4DCT. Planning consisted of 9-10 full 6 MV photon VMAT arcs. Four plans were created for each patient with 12 Gy prescribed to the PTV, with or without an additional 4 Gy SIB to the ABM. Planning dose constraints were set on the OAR or on the PRV. Planning objective was a PTV Dmean < 110% of the prescribed dose, a PTV V110% < 50%, and OAR Dmean ≤ 50-60%. RESULTS: PTV Dmean < 110% was accomplished for most plans (n = 18/20), while all achieved V110%<50%. SIB plans succeeded to optimally cover the boost volume (median ABM Dmean = 16.3 Gy) and resulted in similar OAR sparing compared to plans without SIB (median OAR Dmean = 40-54% of the ABM prescribed dose). No statistically significant differences between plans optimized with constraints on OAR or PRV were found. CONCLUSIONS: Adding a 4 Gy SIB to the ABM for TMI is feasible with VMAT technique, and results in OAR sparing similar to plans without SIB. Setting dose constraints on PRV does not impair PTV dosimetric parameters.

Image-guided total-body irradiation with a movable electronic portal imaging device for bone marrow transplant conditioning.

INTRODUCTION: To prevent radiation pneumonitis following total body irradiation (TBI) clinicians usually use lung shield blocks. The correct position of these shields relative to the patient's lungs is usually verified via mega-voltage imaging and computed radiographic (CR) films. In order to improve this time-consuming procedure, we developed in our department a dedicated, movable, real-time imaging system for image-guided TBI. MATERIAL & METHODS: The system consists of an electronic portal imaging device (EPID) mounted on a dedicated support whose motion along a rail can be controlled from the linac console outside the bunker room. Images are acquired online using a stand-alone console. To test the system efficacy we retrospectively analyzed data of lung blocks positioning from two groups of 10 patients imaged with EPID or CR-films, respectively. RESULTS: The median number of portal images per fraction was 2 (range 1-5) and 1 (range 1-2) for the EPID and the CR-film system, respectively. The minimum time required for an EPID image acquisition, without interpretation and no need of patient position correction in the bunker, was 20seconds against 214seconds for the CR-film. Lung shielding positioning in the right-left and superior-inferior directions was improved using the EPID system (p<0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Compared to CR-films, our movable real-time imaging EPID system is a simple technical solution able to reduce the minimum imaging time for lung shielding by a factor of 10. With the increased possibility to acquire more images as compared to CR-film system the EPID system has the potential to improve patient alignment, as well as patient's comfort and overall setup time.

3D printing for dosimetric optimization and quality assurance in small animal irradiations using megavoltage X-rays.

PURPOSE: New therapeutic options in radiotherapy (RT) are often explored in preclinical in-vivo studies using small animals. We report here on the feasibility of modern megavoltage (MV) linear accelerator (LINAC)-based RT for small animals using easy-to-use consumer 3D printing technology for dosimetric optimization and quality assurance (QA). METHODS: In this study we aimed to deliver 5×2Gy to the half-brain of a rat using a 4MV direct hemi-field X-ray beam. To avoid the beam's build-up in the target and optimize dosimetry, a 1cm thick, customized, 3D-printed bolus was used. A 1:1 scale copy of the rat was 3D printed based on the CT dataset as an end-to-end QA tool. The plan robustness to HU changes was verified. Thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLDs), for both MV irradiations and for kV imaging doses, and a gafchromic film were placed within the phantom for dose delivery verifications. The phantom was designed using a standard treatment planning software, and was irradiated at the LINAC with the target aligned using kV on-board imaging. RESULTS: The plan was robust (dose difference<1% for HU modification from 0 to 250). Film dosimetry showed a good concordance between planned and measured dose, with the steep dose gradient at the edge of the hemi-field properly aligned to spare the contralateral half-brain. In the treated region, the mean TLDs percentage dose differences (±2 SD) were 1.3% (±3.8%) and 0.9% (±1.7%) beneath the bolus. The mean (±2 SD) out-of-field dose measurements was 0.05Gy (±0.02Gy) for an expected dose of 0.04Gy. Imaging doses (2mGy) still spared the contralateral-brain. CONCLUSIONS: Use of consumer 3D-printers enables dosimetry optimization and QA assessment for small animals MV RT in preclinical studies using standard LINACS.

Urethra-Sparing Stereotactic Body Radiation Therapy for Prostate Cancer: Quality Assurance of a Randomized Phase 2 Trial.

PURPOSE: To present the radiation therapy quality assurance results from a prospective multicenter phase 2 randomized trial of short versus protracted urethra-sparing stereotactic body radiation therapy (SBRT) for localized prostate cancer. METHODS AND MATERIALS: Between 2012 and 2015, 165 patients with prostate cancer from 9 centers were randomized and treated with SBRT delivered either every other day (arm A, n = 82) or once a week (arm B, n = 83); 36.25 Gy in 5 fractions were prescribed to the prostate with (n = 92) or without (n = 73) inclusion of the seminal vesicles (SV), and the urethra planning-risk volume received 32.5 Gy. Patients were treated either with volumetric modulated arc therapy (VMAT; n = 112) or with intensity modulated radiation therapy (IMRT; n = 53). Deviations from protocol dose constraints, planning target volume (PTV) homogeneity index, PTV Dice similarity coefficient, and number of monitor units for each treatment plan were retrospectively analyzed. Dosimetric results of VMAT versus IMRT and treatment plans with versus without inclusion of SV were compared. RESULTS: At least 1 major protocol deviation occurred in 51 patients (31%), whereas none was observed in 41. Protocol violations were more frequent in the IMRT group (P < .001). Furthermore, the use of VMAT yielded better dosimetric results than IMRT for urethra planning-risk volume D98% (31.1 vs 30.8 Gy, P < .0001), PTV D2% (37.9 vs 38.7 Gy, P < .0001), homogeneity index (0.09 vs 0.10, P < .0001), Dice similarity coefficient (0.83 vs 0.80, P < .0001), and bladder wall V50% (24.5% vs 33.5%, P = .0001). To achieve its goals volumetric modulated arc therapy required fewer monitor units than IMRT (2275 vs 3378, P <.0001). The inclusion of SV in the PTV negatively affected the rectal wall V90% (9.1% vs 10.4%, P = .0003) and V80% (13.2% vs 15.7%, P = .0003). CONCLUSIONS: Protocol deviations with potential impact on tumor control or toxicity occurred in 31% of patients in this prospective clinical trial. Protocol deviations were more frequent with IMRT. Prospective radiation therapy quality assurance protocols should be strongly recommended for SBRT trials to minimize potential protocol deviations.

External radiotherapy for prostate cancer with or without androgen deprivation: Geneva, 1991 to 2004.

QUESTIONS UNDER STUDY/PRINCIPLES: A retrospective assessment of long-term results on a single centre, single author experience in treating prostate cancer with high dose curative radiotherapy (RT) with or without androgen deprivation (AD). METHODS: Between 1991 and 2004, 408 patients with clinically localised prostate cancer were treated with RT (+/-AD) at the University Hospital of Geneva. RT alone was delivered to 229 patients whereas AD associated to RT was given to 179 patients. The latter was most frequently delivered to those patients with worse prognostic factors at diagnosis (high PSA values, high Gleason scores, stage T3-T4; p <0.001). Patient's biochemical failure was established at the time of PSA progression above the post-treatment nadir value +2 ng/ml. Late urinary, rectal, and sexual side effects were assessed and scored according to the Radiotherapy Oncology Group grading system. RESULTS: Ten-year overall survival (OS) and cancer specific survival were 93% and 62% (p = 0.10), and 94% and 71% (p = 0.19) for patients treated with RT with and without AD respectively (p = 0.10). Ten-year biochemical disease-free survival (bDFS) was 61% and 50% for patients treated with RT with and without AD, respectively (p = 0.14). On Cox regression analysis, PSA at diagnosis and treatment modality correlated significantly with OS, whereas PSA at diagnosis, Gleason score, and treatment modality correlated significantly with bDFS. Mostly high-risk patients (PSA >20 ng/ml and/or Gleason 8-10) benefited from neo-adjuvant AD+RT compared to patients treated with RT alone (67% versus 32%, 5-year bDFS; p <0.001). The 5-year probability of moderate to severe late urinary and low-GI toxicities was 15% and 7% respectively. Regarding sexual toxicity, the 5-year risk of complete failure of erections after treatment was 57%. CONCLUSIONS: AD+RT significantly improved both 10-year OS and bDFS, especially in patients with high-risk disease at diagnosis. Patients treated with RT alone presented with continuous failures during the 10-year interval of observation, thus questioning the wisdom of proposing RT alone at doses below 74 Gy, especially for patients with long life expectancies.

Twice- vs. thrice-weekly moderate hypofractionated radiotherapy for prostate cancer: does overall treatment time matter?

PURPOSE: To evaluate the influence of overall treatment time (OTT) in disease control, acute, and long-term side effects with moderate hypofractionated external beam radiotherapy (RT) for prostate cancer (PCa) delivered either twice- or thrice-a-week. METHODS: 157 patients with localized PCa were treated consecutively with 56 Gy in 4 Gy/fraction delivered either twice (86 patients, from 2003 to 2010, group-1) or thrice a week (71 patients, from 2010 to 2017, group-2) using IMRT or VMAT techniques. Gastrointestinal (GI) and genitourinary (GU) toxicities were scored according to the CTCAE v3.0 grading scale. Median follow-up was 110 and 56 months for groups 1 and 2, respectively. RESULTS: At 6 weeks, patients treated thrice-a-week experienced higher acute ≥ grade-2 GU toxicity compared to those treated twice a week (25.4% vs 5.8%, p = 0.001) even though none presented ≥ grade-3 GU or GI toxicity in the thrice-a-week group. The 5-year ≥ grade-2 late GU toxicity-free survival was higher in group-1 (95.9 ± 2.3%) than in group-2 (81.5 ± 4.9%, p = 0.003), while no differences in ≥ grade-2 late GI toxicity-free survival were observed between both groups (97.5 ± 1.7% vs. 97 ± 2.1% for groups 1 and 2, respectively). The 5-year biochemical relapse-free survival (bRFS) was not different for patients treated twice compared to those treated thrice-a-week (80.6 ± 4.5% vs. 85.3 ± 4.8%, respectively, p = 0.441), as much as for patients treated in > 5 weeks vs. those treated in ≤ 5 weeks (81.3 ± 4.4% vs. 84.4 ± 5.1%, respectively, p = 0.584). CONCLUSIONS: In this retrospective hypothesis-generating analysis, less vs. more than 5 weeks OTT may increase acute and late GU toxicities without significantly improving bRFS in patients treated to high effective doses (> 80 Gy) with moderate hypofractionated RT. Prospective trials evaluating the impact of OTT on hypofractionated schedules for PCa are warranted.

Dose optimization and endorectal balloon for internal pudendal arteries sparing in prostate SBRT.

PURPOSE: Vessel-sparing radiotherapy has shown promising results in preserving erectile function (EF). Using an endorectal balloon (ERB) may help to reduce the dose to the internal pudendal arteries (IPA) by pushing the prostate forward. We tested this hypothesis and evaluated the limits of IPA dose optimization in prostate cancer patients simulated with and without ERB. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Twelve patients with localized disease were simulated both with and without ERB. IPA were delineated on every CT after MRI registration. Planning target volumes (PTV) were planned to receive 36.25 Gy in 5 fractions with a VMAT technique. Twenty-four initial plans were generated using a knowledge-based planning software without any specific constraints for IPA. Additional stepwise optimization was performed until stabilization of the IPA dose or trespassing of PTV homogeneity limits. RESULTS: Without optimization, the median mean IPA dose (Dmean) was lower with ERB than without (10.5 vs. 12.8 Gy, p = 0.023). After optimization, the IPA Dmean dropped significantly (from 11.1 to 4.8 Gy) without impairing the PTV dose homogeneity and the organs at risk dose constraints. The comparison of the best-optimized plans with and without ERB showed an optimal sparing of IPA using ERB (28% mean dose reduction, p = 0.006; median Dmean of 4.1 Gy vs. 5.7 Gy with and without ERB, respectively). CONCLUSION: IPA dose sparing is feasible without compromising dose prescription and constraints. ERB significantly reduced the dose on IPA compared to plans generated without ERB. As no specific constraints are available for vessel-sparing SBRT, optimal IPA dose reduction should be recommended to maximize EF preservation.

Salvage reirradiation for local failure of prostate cancer after curative radiation therapy: Association of rectal toxicity with dose distribution and normal-tissue complication probability models.

PURPOSE: This study aimed to assess the impact of radiation dose on rectal toxicity after salvage external beam radiation therapy (EBRT) with or without a brachytherapy boost for exclusive local failures after the primary EBRT for prostate cancer. METHODS AND MATERIALS: Fourteen patients with no severe residual late toxicity after primary EBRT ± brachytherapy were reirradiated after a median time interval of 6.1 years. The median normalized total dose in 2 Gy fractions (NTD2Gy, α/ß ratio = 1.5 Gy for prostate cancer cells) was 74 Gy at primary EBRT and 85.1 Gy at reirradiation. Rectal dose-volume histograms (converted to NTD2Gy_alpha/beta = 3 Gy) and the corresponding normal-tissue complication probability (NTCP) values for gastrointestinal (GI) toxicity were evaluated for 2 groups: High GI toxicity (grade ≥3) and low GI toxicity (grade ≤2). RESULTS: The 5-year grade ≥3 GI toxicity-free survival rate was 57.1%. The median rectal V70Gy and maximum dose to 1 cm3 (D1ccrect) at primary EBRT were both predictive for grade ≥3 GI toxicity (9% vs 0%; P = .04 and 72.2 Gy vs 66.8 Gy; P < .01, respectively). When adding primary radiation therapy (RT) and reirradiation plans, the median D1ccrect was 139.8 Gy versus 126.7 Gy (P < .01) for high and low GI toxicity groups. NTCP >10% at primary RT was predictive for high GI toxicity at reirradiation (P < .05). CONCLUSIONS: Even in the absence of residual toxicity after primary RT, rectal doses >70 Gy and NTCP >10% calculated for a first irradiation may be associated with a higher risk of developing high GI toxicity at reirradiation with a possible D1ccrect threshold of 130 Gy.

Urethra-sparing stereotactic body radiotherapy for prostate cancer: how much can the rectal wall dose be reduced with or without an endorectal balloon?

BACKGROUND: This is a dosimetric comparative study intended to establish appropriate low-to-intermediate dose-constraints for the rectal wall (Rwall) in the context of a randomized phase-II trial on urethra-sparing stereotactic body radiotherapy (SBRT) for prostate cancer. The effect of plan optimization on low-to-intermediate Rwall dose and the potential benefit of an endorectal balloon (ERB) are investigated. METHODS: Ten prostate cancer patients, simulated with and without an ERB, were planned to receive 36.25Gy (7.25Gyx5) to the planning treatment volume (PTV) and 32.5Gy to the urethral planning risk volume (uPRV). Reference plans with and without the ERB, optimized with respect to PTV and uPRV coverage objectives and the organs at risk dose constraints, were further optimized using a standardized stepwise approach to push down dose constraints to the Rwall in the low to intermediate range in five sequential steps to obtain paired plans with and without ERB (Vm1 to Vm5). Homogeneity index for the PTV and the uPRV, and the Dice similarity coefficient (DSC) for the PTV were analyzed. Dosimetric parameters for Rwall including the median dose and the dose received by 10 to 60% of the Rwall, bladder wall (Bwall) and femoral heads (FHeads) were compared. The monitor units (MU) per plan were recorded. RESULTS: Vm4 reduced by half D30%, D40%, D50%, and Dmed for Rwall and decreased by a third D60% while HIPTV, HIuPRV and DSC remained stable with and without ERB compared to Vmref. HIPTV worsened at Vm5 both with and without ERB. No statistical differences were observed between paired plans on Rwall, Bwall except a higher D2% for Fheads with and without an ERB. CONCLUSIONS: Further optimization to the Rwall in the context of urethra sparing prostate SBRT is feasible without compromising the dose homogeneity to the target. Independent of the use or not of an ERB, low-to-intermediate doses to the Rwall can be significantly reduced using a four-step sequential optimization approach.

Endorectal MRI assessment of local relapse after surgery for prostate cancer: A model to define treatment field guidelines for adjuvant radiotherapy in patients at high risk for local failure.

PURPOSE: To assess the role of endorectal magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in defining local relapse after radical prostatectomy for prostate cancer to help to reassess the clinical target volume (CTV) for adjuvant postprostatectomy radiotherapy. METHODS AND MATERIALS: Sixty patients undergoing an endorectal MRI before salvage radiotherapy were selected. Spatial coordinates of the relapses were assessed using two reference points: the inferior border of the pubic symphysis (point 1) and the urethro-vesical anastomosis (point 2). Every lesion on MRI was delineated on the planning computed tomography and center of mass coordinates were plotted in two separate diagrams (along the x, y, and z axes) with the urethro-vesical anastomosis as the coordinate origin. An "ideal" CTV was constructed, centered at a point defined by the mathematical means of each of the three coordinates with dimensions defined as twice 2 standard deviations in each of the three axes. The dosimetric impact of the new CTV definition was evaluated in six adjuvantly treated patients. RESULTS: The ideal CTV center of mass was located at coordinates 0 (x), -5 (y), and -3 (z) mm with SDs of 6 (x), 6 (y), and 9 (z) mm, respectively. The CTV size was 24 (x) x 24 (y) x 36 (z) mm. Significant rectal sparing was observed with the new CTV. CONCLUSIONS: A CTV with an approximately cylindrical shape (approximately 4 x 3 cm) centered 5 mm posterior and 3 mm inferior to the urethro-vesical anastomosis was defined. Such CTV may reduce the irradiation of normal nontarget tissue in the pelvis potentially improving treatment tolerance.

Reirradiation of Prostate Cancer Local Failures After Previous Curative Radiation Therapy: Long-Term Outcome and Tolerance.

PURPOSE: To evaluate the safety, feasibility, side-effect profile, and proof of concept of external beam radiation therapy (EBRT) with or without a brachytherapy (BT) boost for salvage of exclusive local failure after primary EBRT for prostate cancer. METHODS AND MATERIALS: Fourteen patients with presumed exclusive local recurrence after primary EBRT with or without BT were considered eligible for reirradiation. The median normalized total dose in 2-Gy fractions (NTD2Gy, α/ß ratio = 1.5 Gy) was 74 Gy (range, 66-98.4 Gy) at first irradiation. Median time between the first irradiation and the reirradiation was 6.1 years (range, 4.7-10.2 years). RESULTS: Between 2003 and 2008 salvage treatment was delivered with a median NTD2Gy of 85.1 Gy (range, 70-93.4) to the prostate with EBRT with (n=10) or without (n=4) BT. Androgen deprivation was given to 12 patients (median time of 12 months). No grade ≥3 toxicity was observed during and within 6 weeks after RT. After a median follow-up of 94 months (range, 48-172 months) after salvage RT, 5-year grade ≥3 genitourinary and gastrointestinal toxicity-free survival figures were 77.9% ± 11.3% and 57.1% ± 13.2%, respectively. Four patients presented with combined grade 4 genitourinary/gastrointestinal toxicity. The 5-year biochemical relapse-free, local relapse-free, distant metastasis-free, and cancer-specific survival rates were 35.7% ± 12.8%, 50.0% ± 13.4%, 85.7% ± 9.4%, and 100%, respectively. CONCLUSION: Salvage whole-gland reirradiation for patients with a suspicion of exclusive local recurrence after initial RT may be associated with a high rate of severe radiation-induced side effects and poor long-term biochemical and local control.

Atlas-guided generation of pseudo-CT images for MRI-only and hybrid PET-MRI-guided radiotherapy treatment planning.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)-guided attenuation correction (AC) of positron emission tomography (PET) data and/or radiation therapy (RT) treatment planning is challenged by the lack of a direct link between MRI voxel intensities and electron density. Therefore, even if this is not a trivial task, a pseudo-computed tomography (CT) image must be predicted from MRI alone. In this work, we propose a two-step (segmentation and fusion) atlas-based algorithm focusing on bone tissue identification to create a pseudo-CT image from conventional MRI sequences and evaluate its performance against the conventional MRI segmentation technique and a recently proposed multi-atlas approach. The clinical studies consisted of pelvic CT, PET and MRI scans of 12 patients with loco-regionally advanced rectal disease. In the first step, bone segmentation of the target image is optimized through local weighted atlas voting. The obtained bone map is then used to assess the quality of deformed atlases to perform voxel-wise weighted atlas fusion. To evaluate the performance of the method, a leave-one-out cross-validation (LOOCV) scheme was devised to find optimal parameters for the model. Geometric evaluation of the produced pseudo-CT images and quantitative analysis of the accuracy of PET AC were performed. Moreover, a dosimetric evaluation of volumetric modulated arc therapy photon treatment plans calculated using the different pseudo-CT images was carried out and compared to those produced using CT images serving as references. The pseudo-CT images produced using the proposed method exhibit bone identification accuracy of 0.89 based on the Dice similarity metric compared to 0.75 achieved by the other atlas-based method. The superior bone extraction resulted in a mean standard uptake value bias of -1.5 ± 5.0% (mean ± SD) in bony structures compared to -19.9 ± 11.8% and -8.1 ± 8.2% achieved by MRI segmentation-based (water-only) and atlas-guided AC. Dosimetric evaluation using dose volume histograms and the average difference between minimum/maximum absorbed doses revealed a mean error of less than 1% for the both target volumes and organs at risk. Two-dimensional (2D) gamma analysis of the isocenter dose distributions at 1%/1 mm criterion revealed pass rates of 91.40 ± 7.56%, 96.00 ± 4.11% and 97.67 ± 3.6% for MRI segmentation, atlas-guided and the proposed methods, respectively. The proposed method generates accurate pseudo-CT images from conventional Dixon MRI sequences with improved bone extraction accuracy. The approach is promising for potential use in PET AC and MRI-only or hybrid PET/MRI-guided RT treatment planning.