Activation of endogenous retroviruses during brain development causes an inflammatory response.

Endogenous retroviruses (ERVs) make up a large fraction of mammalian genomes and are thought to contribute to human disease, including brain disorders. In the brain, aberrant activation of ERVs is a potential trigger for an inflammatory response, but mechanistic insight into this phenomenon remains lacking. Using CRISPR/Cas9-based gene disruption of the epigenetic co-repressor protein Trim28, we found a dynamic H3K9me3-dependent regulation of ERVs in proliferating neural progenitor cells (NPCs), but not in adult neurons. In vivo deletion of Trim28 in cortical NPCs during mouse brain development resulted in viable offspring expressing high levels of ERVs in excitatory neurons in the adult brain. Neuronal ERV expression was linked to activated microglia and the presence of ERV-derived proteins in aggregate-like structures. This study demonstrates that brain development is a critical period for the silencing of ERVs and provides causal in vivo evidence demonstrating that transcriptional activation of ERV in neurons results in an inflammatory response.

Diagnostic Accuracy Study of a Novel Blood-Based Assay for Identification of Tuberculosis in People Living with HIV.

A nonsputum triage test to rule out tuberculosis (TB) disease is a WHO high-priority diagnostic, and a combinatory score based on a 3-gene host signature has shown promise in discriminating TB from other illnesses. We evaluated the accuracy of an early-prototype cartridge assay ("Xpert MTB Host Response" or Xpert-MTB-HR-Prototype) of this 3-gene signature on biobanked blood samples from people living with HIV (PLHIV) against a comprehensive microbiological reference standard (CMRS) and against Xpert MTB/RIF on the first sputum sample alone. We depict results based on performance targets set by the WHO in comparison with a laboratory-based C-reactive protein (CRP) assay. Of 201 patients included, 67 were culture positive for Mycobacterium tuberculosis The areas under the concentration-time curve (AUCs) for Xpert-MTB-HR-Prototype were 0.89 (confidence interval [CI], 0.83 to 0.94) against the CMRS and 0.94 (CI, 0.89 to 0.98) against Xpert MTB/RIF. Considering Xpert-MTB-HR-Prototype as a triage test (at the nearest upper value of sensitivity to 90%), specificities were 55.8% (CI, 47.2 to 64.1%) compared to the CMRS and 85.9% (CI, 79.3 to 90.7%) compared to Xpert MTB/RIF as confirmatory tests. Considering Xpert-MTB-HR-Prototype as a stand-alone diagnostic test, at a specificity near 95%, the test achieved a sensitivity of 65.7% (CI, 53.7 to 75.9%), while the CRP assay achieved a sensitivity of only 13.6% (CI, 7.3 to 23.4%). In this first accuracy study of a prototype blood-based host marker assay, we show the possible value of the assay for triage and diagnosis in PLHIV.

Combined epigenetic and differentiation-based treatment inhibits neuroblastoma tumor growth and links HIF2α to tumor suppression.

Neuroblastoma is a pediatric cancer characterized by variable outcomes ranging from spontaneous regression to life-threatening progression. High-risk neuroblastoma patients receive myeloablative chemotherapy with hematopoietic stem-cell transplant followed by adjuvant retinoid differentiation treatment. However, the overall survival remains low; hence, there is an urgent need for alternative therapeutic approaches. One feature of high-risk neuroblastoma is the high level of DNA methylation of putative tumor suppressors. Combining the reversibility of DNA methylation with the differentiation-promoting activity of retinoic acid (RA) could provide an alternative strategy to treat high-risk neuroblastoma. Here we show that treatment with the DNA-demethylating drug 5-Aza-deoxycytidine (AZA) restores high-risk neuroblastoma sensitivity to RA. Combined systemic distribution of AZA and RA impedes tumor growth and prolongs survival. Genome-wide analysis of treated tumors reveals that this combined treatment rapidly induces a HIF2α-associated hypoxia-like transcriptional response followed by an increase in neuronal gene expression and a decrease in cell-cycle gene expression. A small-molecule inhibitor of HIF2α activity diminishes the tumor response to AZA+RA treatment, indicating that the increase in HIF2α levels is a key component in tumor response to AZA+RA. The link between increased HIF2α levels and inhibited tumor growth is reflected in large neuroblastoma patient datasets. Therein, high levels of HIF2α, but not HIF1α, significantly correlate with expression of neuronal differentiation genes and better prognosis but negatively correlate with key features of high-risk tumors, such as MYCN amplification. Thus, contrary to previous studies, our findings indicate an unanticipated tumor-suppressive role for HIF2α in neuroblastoma.

Dopamine signaling leads to loss of Polycomb repression and aberrant gene activation in experimental parkinsonism.

Polycomb group (PcG) proteins bind to and repress genes in embryonic stem cells through lineage commitment to the terminal differentiated state. PcG repressed genes are commonly characterized by the presence of the epigenetic histone mark H3K27me3, catalyzed by the Polycomb repressive complex 2. Here, we present in vivo evidence for a previously unrecognized plasticity of PcG-repressed genes in terminally differentiated brain neurons of parkisonian mice. We show that acute administration of the dopamine precursor, L-DOPA, induces a remarkable increase in H3K27me3S28 phosphorylation. The induction of the H3K27me3S28p histone mark specifically occurs in medium spiny neurons expressing dopamine D1 receptors and is dependent on Msk1 kinase activity and DARPP-32-mediated inhibition of protein phosphatase-1. Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) experiments showed that increased H3K27me3S28p was accompanied by reduced PcG binding to regulatory regions of genes. An analysis of the genome wide distribution of L-DOPA-induced H3K27me3S28 phosphorylation by ChIP sequencing (ChIP-seq) in combination with expression analysis by RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) showed that the induction of H3K27me3S28p correlated with increased expression of a subset of PcG repressed genes. We found that induction of H3K27me3S28p persisted during chronic L-DOPA administration to parkisonian mice and correlated with aberrant gene expression. We propose that dopaminergic transmission can activate PcG repressed genes in the adult brain and thereby contribute to long-term maladaptive responses including the motor complications, or dyskinesia, caused by prolonged administration of L-DOPA in Parkinson's disease.

REST-mediated recruitment of polycomb repressor complexes in mammalian cells.

Polycomb Repressive Complex (PRC) 1 and PRC2 regulate genes involved in differentiation and development. However, the mechanism for how PRC1 and PRC2 are recruited to genes in mammalian cells is unclear. Here we present evidence for an interaction between the transcription factor REST, PRC1, and PRC2 and show that RNF2 and REST co-regulate a number of neuronal genes in human teratocarcinoma cells (NT2-D1). Using NT2-D1 cells as a model of neuronal differentiation, we furthermore showed that retinoic-acid stimulation led to displacement of PRC1 at REST binding sites, reduced H3K27Me3, and increased gene expression. Genome-wide analysis of Polycomb binding in Rest⁻/⁻ and Eed⁻/⁻ mouse embryonic stem (mES) cells showed that Rest was required for PRC1 recruitment to a subset of Polycomb regulated neuronal genes. Furthermore, we found that PRC1 can be recruited to Rest binding sites independently of CpG islands and the H3K27Me3 mark. Surprisingly, PRC2 was frequently increased around Rest binding sites located in CpG-rich regions in the Rest⁻/⁻ mES cells, indicating a more complex interplay where Rest also can limit PRC2 recruitment. Therefore, we propose that Rest has context-dependent functions for PRC1- and PRC2- recruitment, which allows this transcription factor to act both as a recruiter of Polycomb as well as a limiting factor for PRC2 recruitment at CpG islands.

Noggin and Wnt3a enable BMP4-dependent differentiation of telencephalic stem cells into GluR-agonist responsive neurons.

Early telencephalic development is dependent on the spatially and temporally coordinated regulation by essential signaling factors. For example, members of the Bone Morphogenetic Protein (BMP) family, such as BMP4, are crucial for proper development of dorsal telencephalic structures. Stimulation of multipotent telencephalic neural stem cells (NSCs) with BMP4 induces differentiation primarily into astrocytic and mesenchymal cells. However, BMP4-mediated mesenchymal differentiation is inhibited at certain culture conditions of NSCs, corresponding to in vivo developmental contexts. These inhibitory mechanisms are not fully understood and the terminal fate of non-astrocytic BMP4 treated NSCs under these conditions is unclear. Here we show that secreted factors inhibited BMP4-mediated mesenchymal differentiation of telencephalic NSCs. BMP4 mediated a dramatic and direct up-regulation of endogenous noggin levels, that in turn exerted a concentration-dependent inhibition of BMP4-mediated mesenchymal differentiation of NSCs. Instead, BMP4 exposure of NSCs induced neuronal differentiation in mesenchyme-preventing conditions, whereas treatment with recombinant noggin alone did not. Wnt signaling is known to be essential for the development of neurons derived from the dorsal telencephalon, and co-stimulation of NSCs with BMP4+Wnt3a resulted in a synergistic effect yielding significantly increased number of mature neurons compared to stimulation with each factor alone. Thus whereas only a subset of BMP4-induced neurons derived from telencephalic NSCs, responded to glutamate receptor (GluR) agonists, over 80% of BMP4+Wnt3a-induced neurons responded appropriately to GluR-agonists. Our results increase the understanding of the role for BMP4 in differentiation of telencephalic multipotent progenitors, and reveal novel implications for noggin and Wnt3a in these events.

PRC2-mediated repression is essential to maintain identity and function of differentiated dopaminergic and serotonergic neurons.

How neurons can maintain cellular identity over an entire life span remains largely unknown. Here, we show that maintenance of identity in differentiated dopaminergic and serotonergic neurons is critically reliant on the Polycomb repressive complex 2 (PRC2). Deletion of the obligate PRC2 component, Eed, in these neurons resulted in global loss of H3K27me3, followed by a gradual activation of genes harboring both H3K27me3 and H3K9me3 modifications. Notably, H3K9me3 was lost at these PRC2 targets before gene activation. Neuronal survival was not compromised; instead, there was a reduction in subtype-specific gene expression and a progressive impairment of dopaminergic and serotonergic neuronal function, leading to behavioral deficits characteristic of Parkinson's disease and anxiety. Single-cell analysis revealed subtype-specific vulnerability to loss of PRC2 repression in dopamine neurons of the substantia nigra. Our study reveals that a PRC2-dependent nonpermissive chromatin state is essential to maintain the subtype identity and function of dopaminergic and serotonergic neurons.

A novel blood-based assay for treatment monitoring of tuberculosis.

OBJECTIVES: A novel 3-gene host transcriptional signature (GBP5, DUSP3 and KLF2) has been validated for tuberculosis (TB) treatment monitoring using laboratory-based RNA sequencing platforms. The signature was recently translated by Cepheid into a prototype cartridge-based test that can be run on the GeneXpert instrument. In this study, we prospectively evaluated the change in the expression of the cartridge-based 3-gene signature following treatment initiation among pulmonary TB patients who were microbiologically cured at the end of treatment. RESULTS: The 3-gene signature expression level (TB score) changed significantly over time with respect to baseline among 31 pulmonary TB patients. The greatest increase in TB score occurred within the first month of treatment (median fold-increase in TB score: 1.08 [IQR 0.54-1.52]) and plateaued after 4 months of treatment (median TB score: 1.97 [IQR: 1.03-2.33]). The rapid and substantial increase of the TB score in the first month of treatment holds promise for the early identification of patients that respond to TB treatment. The plateau in TB score at 4 months may indicate early clearance of disease and could direct treatment to be shortened. These hypotheses need to be further explored with larger prospective treatment monitoring studies.

Blood-based host biomarker diagnostics in active case finding for pulmonary tuberculosis: A diagnostic case-control study.

BACKGROUND: There is a need to identify scalable tuberculosis screening strategies among high burden populations. The WHO has identified a non-sputum-based triage test as a development priority. METHODS: We performed a diagnostic case-control study of point-of-care C-reactive protein (CRP) and Prototype-Xpert-MTB-Host-Response (Xpert-MTB-HR) assays in the context of a mass screening program for tuberculosis in two prisons in Brazil. All incarcerated individuals irrespective of symptoms were screened by sputum Xpert MTB/RIF and sputum culture. Among consecutive, Xpert MTB/RIF or culture-confirmed cases and Xpert MTB/RIF and culture-negative controls, CRP was quantified in serum by a point-of-care assay (iChroma-II) and a 3-gene expression score was quantified from whole blood using the Xpert-MTB-HR cartridge. We evaluated receiver operating characteristic area under the curve (AUC) and assessed specificity at 90% sensitivity and sensitivity at 70% specificity, consistent with WHO target product profile (TPP) benchmarks. FINDINGS: Two hundred controls (no TB) and 100 culture- or Xpert MTB/RIF-positive tuberculosis cases were included. Half of tuberculosis cases and 11% of controls reported any tuberculosis symptoms. AUC for CRP was 0·79 (95% CI: 0·73-0·84) and for Xpert-MTB-HR was 0·84 (95% CI: 0·79-0·89). At 90% sensitivity, Xpert-MTB-HR had significantly higher specificity (53·0%, 95% CI: 45·0-69·0%) than CRP (28·1%, 95% CI: 20·2-41·8%) (p = 0·003), both well below the TPP benchmark of 70%. Among individuals with medium or high sputum Xpert MTB/RIF semi-quantitative load, sensitivity (at 70% specificity) of CRP (90·3%, 95% CI: 74·2-98·0) and Xpert-MTB-HR (96·8%, 95% CI: 83·3-99·9%) was higher. INTERPRETATION: For active case finding in this high tuberculosis-burden setting, CRP and Xpert-MTB-HR did not meet TPP benchmarks for a triage test. However, Xpert-MTB-HR was highly sensitive in detecting individuals with medium or high sputum bacillary burden. FUNDING: National Institutes of Health (R01 AI130058 and R01 AI149620) and Brazilian National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-404182/2019-4).

A comprehensive map coupling histone modifications with gene regulation in adult dopaminergic and serotonergic neurons.

The brain is composed of hundreds of different neuronal subtypes, which largely retain their identity throughout the lifespan of the organism. The mechanisms governing this stability are not fully understood, partly due to the diversity and limited size of clinically relevant neuronal populations, which constitute a technical challenge for analysis. Here, using a strategy that allows for ChIP-seq combined with RNA-seq in small neuronal populations in vivo, we present a comparative analysis of permissive and repressive histone modifications in adult midbrain dopaminergic neurons, raphe nuclei serotonergic neurons, and embryonic neural progenitors. Furthermore, we utilize the map generated by our analysis to show that the transcriptional response of midbrain dopaminergic neurons following 6-OHDA or methamphetamine injection is characterized by increased expression of genes with promoters dually marked by H3K4me3/H3K27me3. Our study provides an in vivo genome-wide analysis of permissive/repressive histone modifications coupled to gene expression in these rare neuronal subtypes.

Author Correction: A comprehensive map coupling histone modifications with gene regulation in adult dopaminergic and serotonergic neurons.

In the originally published version of this Article, financial support was not fully acknowledged. The PDF and HTML versions of the Article have now been corrected to include support to Thomas Perlmann provided by Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation (grant 2013.0075) and Swedish Research Council (VR; grant 2016-02506).

Elevated levels of ZAC1 disrupt neurogenesis and promote rapid in vivo reprogramming.

The zinc finger transcription factor Zac1 is expressed in dividing progenitors of the nervous system with expression levels negatively controlled by genomic imprinting. To explore the consequences of elevated ZAC1 levels during neurogenesis we overexpressed it in the developing CNS. Increased levels of ZAC1 rapidly promoted upregulation of CDK inhibitors P57 and P27 followed by cell cycle exit. Surprisingly this was accompanied by stalled neuronal differentiation. Genome wide expression analysis of cortical cells overexpressing Zac1 revealed a decrease in neuronal gene expression and an increased expression of imprinted genes, factors regulating mesoderm formation as well as features of differentiated muscle. In addition, we observed a rapid induction of several genes regulating pluripotency. Taken together, our data suggests that expression levels of Zac1 need to be kept under strict control to avoid premature cell cycle exit, disrupted neurogenesis and aberrant expression of non-neuronal genes including pluripotency associated factors.

Differential regulation of the phosphorylation of Trimethyl-lysine27 histone H3 at serine 28 in distinct populations of striatal projection neurons.

Phosphorylation of histone H3 (H3) on serine 28 (S28) at genomic regions marked by trimethylation of lysine 27 (H3K27me3) often correlates with increased expression of genes normally repressed by Polycomb group proteins (PcG). We show that amphetamine, an addictive psychostimulant, and haloperidol, a typical antipsychotic drug, increase the phosphorylation of H3 at S28 and that this effect occurs in the context of H3K27me3. The increases in H3K27me3S28p occur in distinct populations of projection neurons located in the striatum, the major component of the basal ganglia. Genetic inactivation of the protein phosphatase-1 inhibitor, dopamine- and cAMP-regulated phosphoprotein of 32 kDa (DARPP-32), reduces the phosphorylation of H3K27me3S28 produced by amphetamine and haloperidol. In contrast, knockout of the mitogen- and stress activated kinase 1 (MSK1), which is implicated in the phosphorylation of histone H3, decreases the effect of amphetamine, but not that of haloperidol. Chromatin immunoprecipitation analysis shows that amphetamine and haloperidol increase the phosphorylation of H3K27me3S28 at the promoter regions of Atf3, Npas4 and Lipg, three genes repressed by PcG. These results identify H3K27me3S28p as a potential mediator of the effects exerted by amphetamine and haloperidol, and suggest that these drugs may act by re-activating PcG repressed target genes.

A Role for Mitogen- and Stress-Activated Kinase 1 in L-DOPA-Induced Dyskinesia and ∆FosB Expression.

BACKGROUND: Abnormal regulation of extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1 and 2 has been implicated in 3,4-dihydroxy-l-phenylalanine (L-DOPA)-induced dyskinesia (LID), a motor complication affecting Parkinson's disease patients subjected to standard pharmacotherapy. We examined the involvement of mitogen- and stress-activated kinase 1 (MSK1), a downstream target of extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1 and 2, and an important regulator of transcription in LID. METHODS: 6-Hydroxydopamine was used to produce a model of Parkinson's disease in MSK1 knockout mice and in ∆FosB- or ∆cJun-overexpressing transgenic mice, which were assessed for LID following long-term L-DOPA administration. Biochemical processes were evaluated by Western blotting or immunofluorescence. Histone H3 phosphorylation was analyzed by chromatin immunoprecipitation followed by promotor-specific quantitative polymerase chain reaction. RESULTS: Genetic inactivation of MSK1 attenuated LID and reduced the phosphorylation of histone H3 at Ser10 in the striatum. Chromatin immunoprecipitation analysis showed that this reduction occurred at the level of the fosB gene promoter. In line with this observation, the accumulation of ∆FosB produced by chronic L-DOPA was reduced in MSK1 knockout. Moreover, inducible overexpression of ∆FosB in striatonigral medium spiny neurons exacerbated dyskinetic behavior, whereas overexpression of ∆cJun, which reduces ∆FosB-dependent transcriptional activation, counteracted LID. CONCLUSIONS: Results indicate that abnormal regulation of MSK1 contributes to the development of LID and to the concomitant increase in striatal ∆FosB, which may occur via increased histone H3 phosphorylation at the fosB promoter. Results also show that accumulation of ∆FosB in striatonigral neurons is causally related to the development of dyskinesia.

Targeted intra-arterial transplantation of stem cells to the injured CNS is more effective than intravenous administration: engraftment is dependent on cell type and adhesion molecule expression.

Stem cell transplantation procedures using intraparenchymal injections cause tissue injury in addition to associated surgical risks. Intravenous cell administration give engraftment in parenchymal lesions although the method has low efficacy and specificity. In pathological conditions with inflammation, such as traumatic brain injury, there is a transient up-regulation of ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 which might provide environmental cues for migration of stem cells from blood to parenchyma. The aim of this study was to i) analyze the effect of intra-arterial administration on cellular engraftment, ii) compare engraftment and side effects between three different stem cell systems, and iii) analyze gene expression in these three systems. We performed specific intra-arterial transplantations with human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs), human neural progenitor cells (hNPCs), and rat neural progenitor cells (rNPCs) in a rat model of traumatic brain injury. These results were compared to the intravenous route for each cell type, respectively. Analysis of engraftment and recipient characterization was performed by immunohistochemistry. We further characterized the different types of cells by microarray and RT-qPCR analysis. Specific intra-arterial transplantations produced significantly higher engraftment compared to intravenous transplantation with hMSCs and rNPCs. No engraftment was detected after intra-arterial or intravenous administration of hNPCs. Characterization of integrin expression indicated that CD49dVCAM-1 and possibly ICAM-1 interactions through CD18 and CD11a, respectively, are important for engraftment after intravascular cell administration. No side effects, such as thromboembolic complications, were detected. When translating stem cell therapies to clinical practice, the route of transplantation and the properties of the cell lines (homing, diapedesis, and migration) become important. This study supports the use of selective intra-arterial transplantation for improving engraftment after traumatic brain injury. In addition, we conclude that careful analysis of cells intended for local, intra-arterial transplantation with respect to integrin expression is important.

The novel BTB/POZ and zinc finger factor Zbtb45 is essential for proper glial differentiation of neural and oligodendrocyte progenitor cells.

Understanding the regulatory mechanisms controlling the fate decisions of neural stem cells (NSCs) is a crucial issue to shed new light on mammalian central nervous system (CNS) development in health and disease. We have investigated a possible role for the previously uncharacterized BTB/POZ-domain containing zinc finger factor Zbtb45 in the differentiation of NSCs and postnatal oligodendrocyte precursors. In situ hybridization histochemistry and RT-qPCR analysis revealed that Zbtb45 mRNA was ubiquitously expressed in the developing CNS in mouse embryos at embryonic day (E) 12.5 and 14.5. Zbtb45 mRNA knockdown in embryonic forebrain NSCs by siRNA resulted in a rapid decrease in the expression of oligodendrocyte-characteristic genes after mitogen (FGF2) withdrawal, whereas the expression of astrocyte-associated genes such as CD44 and GFAP increased compared to control. Accordingly, the number of astrocytes was significantly increased seven days after Zbtb45 siRNA delivery to NSCs, in contrast to the numbers of neuronal and oligodendrocyte-like cells. Surprisingly, mRNA knockdown of the Zbtb45-associated factor Med31, a subunit of the Mediator complex, did not result in any detectable effect on NSC differentiation. Similar to NSCs, Zbtb45 mRNA knockdown in oligodendrocyte precursors (CG-4) reduced oligodendrocyte maturation upon mitogen withdrawal associated with down-regulation of the mRNA expression and protein levels of markers for oligodendrocytic differentiation. Zbtb45 mRNA knockdown did not significantly affect proliferation or cell death in any of the cell types. Based on these observations, we propose that Zbtb45 is a novel regulator of glial differentiation.

CXXC5 is a novel BMP4-regulated modulator of Wnt signaling in neural stem cells.

Bone morphogenetic proteins such as BMP4 are essential for proper development of telencephalic forebrain structures and induce differentiation of telencephalic neural stem cells into a variety of cellular fates, including astrocytic, neuronal, and mesenchymal cells. Little is yet understood regarding the mechanisms that underlie the spatiotemporal differences in progenitor response to BMP4. In a screen designed to identify novel targets of BMP4 signaling in telencephalic neural stem cells, we found the mRNA levels of the previously uncharacterized factor CXXC5 reproducibly up-regulated upon BMP4 stimulation. In vivo, CXXC5 expression overlapped with BMP4 adjacent to Wnt3a expression in the dorsal regions of the telencephalon, including the developing choroid plexus. CXXC5 showed partial homology with Idax, a related protein previously shown to interact with the Wnt-signaling intermediate Dishevelled (Dvl). Indeed CXXC5 and Dvl co-localized in the cytoplasm and interacted in co-immunoprecipitation experiments. Moreover, fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) experiments verified that CXXC5 and Dvl2 were located in close spatial proximity in neural stem cells. Studies of the functional role of CXXC5 revealed that overexpression of CXXC5 or exposure to BMP4 repressed the levels of the canonical Wnt signaling target Axin2, and CXXC5 attenuated Wnt3a-mediated increase in TOPflash reporter activity. Accordingly, RNA interference of CXXC5 attenuated the BMP4-mediated decrease in Axin2 levels and facilitated the response to Wnt3a in neural stem cells. We propose that CXXC5 is acting as a BMP4-induced inhibitor of Wnt signaling in neural stem cells.

Degradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons at low temperature under aerobic and nitrate-reducing conditions in enrichment cultures from northern soils.

The potential for biodegradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)at low temperature and under anaerobic conditions is not well understood, but such biodegradation would be very useful for remediation of polluted sites. Biodegradation of a mixture of 11 different PAHs with two to five aromatic rings, each at a concentration of 10 micro g/ml, was studied in enrichment cultures inoculated with samples of four northern soils. Under aerobic conditions, low temperature severely limited PAH biodegradation. After 90 days, aerobic cultures at 20 degrees C removed 52 to 88% of the PAHs. The most extensive PAH degradation under aerobic conditions at 7 degrees C,53% removal, occurred in a culture from creosote-contaminated soil. Low temperature did not substantially limit PAH biodegradation under nitrate-reducing conditions. Under nitrate-reducing conditions,naphthalene, 2-methylnaphthalene, fluorene, and phenanthrene were degraded. The most extensive PAH degradation under nitrate-reducing conditions at 7 degrees C, 39% removal, occurred in a culture from fuel-contaminated Arctic soil. In separate transfer cultures from the above Arctic soil, incubated anaerobically at 7 degrees C, removal of 2-methylnaphthalene and fluorene was stoichiometrically coupled to nitrate removal. Ribosomal intergenic spacer analysis suggested that enrichment resulted in a few predominant bacterial populations,including members of the genera Acidovorax,Bordetella, Pseudomonas, Sphingomonas, and Variovorax. Predominant populations from different soils often included phylotypes with nearly identical partial 16S rRNA gene sequences (i.e., same genus) but never included phylotypes with identical ribosomal intergenic spacers (i.e., different species or subspecies). The composition of the enriched communities appeared to be more affected by presence of oxygen, than by temperature or source of the inoculum.