Reduced activation and proliferation of human lymphocytes exposed to respiratory syncytial virus compared to cells exposed to influenza virus.

Both respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) and influenza A virus (IAV) may infect human peripheral blood mononuclear leukocytes (PBMC) during the immune response to viral challenge as the cells are recruited to the respiratory tract. The current studies demonstrated differences in PBMC responses to the two viruses very early after exposure, including reduced fos protein and CD69 expression and IL-2 production by RSV-exposed T lymphocytes. Exposure to RSV resulted in reduced lymphocyte proliferation despite evidence of a virus-specific T lymphocyte frequency equivalent to that for influenza virus. Reduced RSV-induced proliferation was not due to apoptosis, which was itself reduced relative to that of influenza virus-exposed T lymphocytes. The data indicate that differential immune responses to RSV and influenza virus are determined early after exposure of human PBMC and support the concept that the anamnestic immune response that might prevent clinically evident reinfection is attenuated very soon after exposure to RSV. Thus, candidate RSV vaccines should be expected to reduce but not prevent clinical illness upon subsequent infection by RSV. Furthermore, effective therapeutic agents for RSV are likely to be needed, especially for high-risk populations, even after vaccine development.

Suitability of HIV-Infected Subjects for Insurance.

Objectives .- To ascertain the suitability of HIV-positive individuals for insurance coverage based on international data and practices. Background .- During the first decade of HIV epidemic, diagnosis of HIV-infection carried a poor prognosis. Since the introduction of Highly Active Anti-Retroviral Therapy (HAART or ART), HIV infection is more like other chronic diseases with infected individuals often living 20 or more years after the diagnosis of HIV infection Methods .- Review of peer-reviewed publications was undertaken to assess the risk of death in the HIV-infected population as a whole as well as subsets with favorable outcomes and those with additional comorbidities, such as co-infection with hepatitis viruses and drug use. Results .- Review of literature revealed that in well-educated, non-drug using individuals, negative for hepatitis B and C infection, who had CD 4 counts above 500/cmm, viral loads below 500 particles/mL, and were compliant with treatment, the mortality rate was similar to that of general population. Conclusions .- The risk of death, in at least a subset of HIV-positive subjects, is low enough that insurance providers should consider stratifying HIV-infected individuals according to mortality risk and offering insurance rates comparable to people with other diseases with similar mortality risks.

Antiobiotic prophylaxis to prevent surgical site infections.

Surgical site infections are the most common nosocomial infections in surgical patients, accounting for approximately 500,000 infections annually. Surgical site infections also account for nearly 4 million excess hospital days annually, and nearly $2 billion in increased health care costs. To reduce the burden of these infections, a partnership of national organizations, including the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, created the Surgical Care Improvement Project and developed six infection prevention measures. Of these, three core measures contain recommendations regarding selection of prophylactic antibiotic, timing of administration, and duration of therapy. For most patients undergoing clean-contaminated surgeries (e.g., cardiothoracic, gastrointestinal, orthopedic, vascular, gynecologic), a cephalosporin is the recommended prophylactic antibiotic. Hospital compliance with infection prevention measures is publicly reported. Because primary care physicians participate in the pre- and postoperative care of patients, they should be familiar with the Surgical Care Improvement Project recommendations.

Clostridium difficile: an update for the primary care clinician.

Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) is an important cause of intestinal disease, primarily affecting hospitalized patients exposed to antibiotics. Infection has been associated with prolonged hospital stays and excess healthcare expenditures. Recent changes in the epidemiology, pathogenesis, and treatment of CDI have occurred, leading to renewed scrutiny of this pathogen. Increases in its incidence and severity have been documented, possibly due to the emergence of a hypervirulent strain that produces high levels of toxins. Community-acquired cases in individuals without traditional risk factors have been reported. Furthermore, oral metronidazole may not be as effective as oral vancomycin for patients with severe CDI. New therapies are being investigated for patients with recurrent disease. This review highlights the new developments in the epidemiology, pathogenesis, and management of CDI, serving as an up-to-date resource for primary care clinicians.

Economic burden of adult pharyngitis: the payer's perspective.

OBJECTIVES: Although not recommended by practice guidelines, physicians frequently prescribe an antibiotic for adults with viral pharyngitis. The financial burden of this practice, from the payer's perspective, has not been previously evaluated. The purpose of this study was to estimate those expenditures. METHODS: A cost-of-illness study was performed to estimate annual expenditures of pharyngitis management from the payer's perspective. National Ambulatory Care Survey data were used to represent current patterns of ambulatory care visits and antibiotic prescriptions for adult pharyngitis. Direct and antibiotic resistance costs were summed to estimate total expenditures for pharyngitis management. Resistance costs were calculated using a model linking the effect of antibiotic consumption to the cost consequences of resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae infection. Sensitivity analyses compared cost outcomes of current practice, adherence to pharyngitis management guidelines from the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA), and nonantibiotic treatment. RESULTS: In the base-case analysis, reflecting current practice patterns, total expenditures were $1.2 billion with antibiotic resistance contributing 36% ($426 million). IDSA guideline adherence decreased costs to $559 million with resistance accounting for 6.8% ($37.9 million). Guideline adherence plus reducing office visits by 30% decreased costs to $372 million, with only 1.4% ($5.3 million) due to resistance. Additional cost-savings of $88 million were realized by using a nonantibiotic treatment strategy. CONCLUSIONS: Current practice imposed a substantial economic burden on the payer, while guideline adherence resulted in cost reductions, especially in terms of resistance, emphasizing that antibiotic prescribing habits have broad economic consequences. Relevant stakeholders, payers, physicians, and other health-care providers should revisit efforts to encourage adherence to pharyngitis guidelines to reduce health-care costs.

Polyneuropathy complicating the diagnosis of normal pressure hydrocephalus: case report and review of literature.

Polyneuropathy is a rare association of normal pressure hydrocephalus (NPH) and may complicate the diagnosis of both diseases. We describe a patient with NPH who presented with acute polyneuropathy. The patient was initially thought to have Guillain-Barré disease (GBS). Early consideration of NPH in patients presenting with acute polyneuropathy could result in prompt diagnosis and treatment of NPH.

Fluoroquinolone treatment of community-acquired pneumonia: a meta-analysis.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the role of newer fluoroquinolones (FQs) for adults with community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) whose level of illness allows treatment with an oral antibiotic. METHODS: Meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials comparing a macrolide, beta-lactam, or doxycycline antibiotic with a newer oral FQ for the treatment of CAP. RESULTS: Patients (5118), most of whom were <60 years of age and free of coexisting diseases, were enrolled in 13 studies comparing an oral macrolide or beta-lactam antibiotic with an FQ for the treatment of CAP. No previous study compared doxycycline with an FQ. In the intention-to-treat (ITT) population, no trial demonstrated significant differences between FQs or alternative therapies. Summary estimates showed a statistically significant advantage in favor of the FQs in both the ITT (OR 1.22; 95% CI 1.02 to 1.47; p = 0.03) and evaluable populations (OR 1.37; 95% CI 1.11 to 1.68; p = 0.003). The number needed to treat for an FQ advantage was 33 (95% CI 17 to 362) in the ITT population and 37 (95% CI 22 to 121) in the evaluable population. Treatment failures represented slow symptom resolution; no deaths were reported. CONCLUSIONS: The newer oral FQs showed modest therapeutic benefit compared with the studied alternative antibiotics in adults with CAP. Based on the number needed to treat from the ITT population as a measure of treatment effect, clinicians must decide whether treating 33 patients with an FQ to prevent a single therapeutic failure with another studied antibiotic warrants use of an agent from that class for an illness with a generally favorable outcome regardless of antibiotic selection, and at a time when FQ resistance may be increasing.