Predictors of first hospitalization due to disease activity and infections in systemic lupus erythematosus patients.

OBJECTIVES: To identify the predictive factors of first hospitalization and associated variables to the main causes of hospitalizations in lupus patients from a Latin American cohort. METHODS: The first hospitalization after entry into the cohort during these patients' follow-up due to either lupus disease activity and/or infection was examined. Clinical and therapeutic variables were those occurring prior to the first hospitalization. Descriptive statistical tests, multivariable logistic, and Cox regression models were performed. RESULTS: 1341 individuals were included in this analysis; 1200 (89.5%) were women. Their median and interquartile range (IQR) age at diagnosis were 27 (20-37) years and their median and IQR follow up time were 27.5 (4.7-62.2) months. A total of 456 (34.0%) patients were hospitalized; 344 (75.4%), 85 (18.6%) and 27 (5.9%) for disease activity, infections, or both, respectively. The predictors of the first hospitalization regardless of its cause were: medium (HR 2.03(1.27-3.24); p = 0.0028) and low (HR 2.42(1.55-3.79); p < 0.0001) socioeconomic status, serosal (HR 1.32(1.07-1.62); p = 0.0074) and renal (HR 1.50(1.23-1.82); p < 0.0001) involvement. Antimalarial (AM) use (HR 0.61(0.50-0.74); p < 0.0001) and achieving remission (HR 0.80(0.65-0.97); p = 0.0300) were negative predictors. CONCLUSIONS: The first hospitalization was associated with worse socioeconomic status and serosal and renal involvement. Conversely, AM use and achieving remission were associated with a lower risk of hospitalizations.

Experience and impact of stigma in people with chronic hepatitis B: a qualitative study in Asia, Europe, and the United States.

BACKGROUND: People with chronic hepatitis B (CHB) commonly experience social and self-stigma. This study sought to understand the impacts of CHB-related stigma and a functional cure on stigma. METHODS: Adults with CHB with a wide range of age and education were recruited from 5 countries and participated in 90-minute qualitative, semi-structured interviews to explore concepts related to CHB-associated stigma and its impact. Participants answered open-ended concept-elicitation questions regarding their experience of social and self-stigma, and the potential impact of reduced CHB-related stigma. RESULTS: Sixty-three participants aged 25 to 71 years (15 from the United States and 12 each from China, Germany, Italy, and Japan) reported emotional, lifestyle, and social impacts of living with CHB, including prejudice, marginalization, and negative relationship and work experiences. Self-stigma led to low self-esteem, concealment of CHB status, and social withdrawal. Most participants stated a functional cure for hepatitis B would reduce self-stigma. CONCLUSIONS: CHB-related social and self-stigma are widely prevalent and affect many aspects of life. A functional cure for hepatitis B may reduce social and self-stigma and substantially improve the health-related quality of life of people with CHB. Incorporating stigma into guidelines along with infectivity considerations may broaden the patient groups who should receive treatment.

A conceptual model for chronic hepatitis B and content validity of the Hepatitis B Quality of Life (HBQOL) instrument.

BACKGROUND: There is increased emphasis on incorporating patient perspectives and patient-relevant endpoints in drug development. We developed a conceptual model of the impact of chronic hepatitis B (CHB) on patients' lives and evaluated the content validity of the Hepatitis B Quality of Life (HBQOL) instrument, a patient-reported outcome tool for use in clinical studies, as a patient-relevant endpoint to measure health-related quality of life in patients with CHB. METHODS: A literature review of qualitative studies of patient experience with CHB and concept elicitation telephone interviews with patients with CHB in the United Kingdom were used to develop a conceptual model of the experience and impact of living with CHB. The content validity of the HBQOL was evaluated using cognitive debriefing techniques. RESULTS: The qualitative literature review (N = 43 publications) showed that patients with CHB experience emotional/psychological impacts. During concept elicitation interviews (N = 24), fatigue was the most commonly reported symptom, and most participants were worried/anxious about virus transmission and disease progression/death. A conceptual model of patients' experiences with CHB was developed. The conceptual relevance and comprehensibility of the HBQOL were supported, though limitations, including the lack of a self-stigma item and recall period, were noted for future improvement. CONCLUSIONS: The conceptual model shows that patients with CHB experience emotional/psychological impacts that affect their lifestyles, relationships, and work/schooling. The cognitive debriefing interviews support the content validity of the HBQOL as a conceptually relevant patient-reported outcome measure of health-related quality of life.

Real-World Epidemiology, Clinical and Economic Burden of Chronic Hepatitis B in Japan: A Retrospective Study Using JMDC Claims Database.

INTRODUCTION: Chronic hepatitis B (CHB) is one of the world's major healthcare problems, especially in the Western Pacific regions. This study describes the prevalence, incidence, treatment profiles and clinical and economic burden of chronic hepatitis B patients in Japan using the Japan Medical Data Center (JMDC) Claims Database. METHODS: This is a retrospective observational study. Prevalence cases were identified as patients with ≥ 1 inpatient or ≥ 2 outpatient CHB diagnoses and ≥ 2 records for hepatitis B tests or ≥ 1 prescription for CHB treatment between January 2010 and December 2019. Newly diagnosed CHB patients were defined as patients diagnosed from 2010 to 2018 with no history of the disease up to 2 years prior to the diagnosis. The index date is defined as the first CHB diagnosis day. We only used patients' data with ≥ 1-year post-index date. RESULTS: We identified 13,061 CHB prevalent cases (2010-2019), yielding a crude period prevalence of 0.32%. Newly diagnosed CHB patients (n = 1973; median age 52 years) were followed for a median period of 3.1 years, during which 15% received a CHB treatment. Entecavir was the most common first treatment (66%). During this period, 3.4% of the patients developed compensated cirrhosis (CC), 1.5% decompensated cirrhosis (DC) and 3.0% hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Around 43.3% of CHB patients were hospitalized at least once. Hospitalizations, treatment rates, serologic testing and screening for liver diseases increased as the severity of the disease progressed. The average total healthcare cost was 870,568 JPY (7779 USD) per person per year. DC and HCC resulted in the highest management costs. CONCLUSIONS: Chronic hepatitis B represents a high clinical and economic burden for patients and caregivers, given its morbidity and associated costs.

Clinical Outcomes and Quantitative HBV Surface Antigen Levels in Diverse Chronic Hepatitis B Patients in Canada: A Retrospective Real-World Study of CHB in Canada (REVEAL-CANADA).

BACKGROUND: Hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) loss is associated with improved clinical outcomes for individuals with chronic hepatitis B (CHB); however, the effects of varying HBsAg levels on clinical outcomes in diverse cohorts are understudied. METHODS: In this cross-sectional, multicentre, retrospective study, the data on adult subjects enrolled in the Canadian HBV Network with CHB seen from 1 January 2012 to 30 January 2021 with the treatment and virologic data within 1 year of HBsAg testing were analyzed. Patients were tested for HBsAg using qualitative (for HBsAg-negative samples) and/or commercial quantitative assays. Fibrosis or hepatic necroinflammation was determined by the liver stiffness measurement (LSM). The baseline data were summarized using descriptive statistics and compared by using univariable/multivariable analyses. RESULTS: This study included 844 CHB patients, with a median age of 49.6 years (IQR 40.1-60.5), and 37% were female. In total, 751 patients (78.6%) had known ethnicity data, and 76.7% self-reported as Asian, 11.4% as Black, 6.8% as White, and 4.8% as other. Among the 844 patients, 237 (28.0%) were HBsAg (-) (1000 IU/mL. Overall, 80% (682) had known HBeAg status at the last follow-up, and the majority (87.0%) were HBeAg-negative. In addition, 54% (461/844) had prior antiviral therapy, 19.7% of which (16.3, 23.7, n = 91) were HBsAg (-). The treated patients had a lower risk of cirrhosis (16.46, 95% CI 1.89-143.39, p = 0.01) or HCC (8.23, 95% CI 1.01-67.39, p = 0.05) than the untreated patients. A lower proportion of the HBsAg-loss group had cirrhosis (5.7% vs. 10.9%, p = 0.021) and HCC (0.9% vs. 6.2%, p = 0.001). CONCLUSION: In this retrospective, ethnically diverse cohort study, CHB patients who received antiviral therapy and/or had HBsAg loss were less likely to develop cirrhosis and HCC, confirming the results of the studies in less diverse cohorts. No association was found between the qHBsAg level and fibrosis determined with LSM. Individuals who achieved HBsAg loss had low-level qHBsAg within 1 year of seroclearance.

Are Published Health Economic Models for Chronic Hepatitis B Appropriately Capturing the Benefits of HBsAg Loss? A Systematic Literature Review.

OBJECTIVES: Sustained hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) loss or 'functional cure' (FC) is considered an optimal treatment endpoint by international clinical guidelines for chronic hepatitis B (CHB), yet rarely is this achieved with current standard of care (SoC). This leads to an under-reporting of FC in clinical trials, observational studies and health economic (HE) models. This paper systematically identifies and assesses how FC is incorporated in published HE models of CHB. METHODS: A systematic literature review was conducted in PubMed and Embase (conducted February 2019) to review how HBsAg loss is captured in HE models. The following items were extracted: rate of (and transition probabilities to) HBsAg loss, HBsAg loss health state costs, and HBsAg loss health state utilities. RESULTS: Sixty-five economics evaluations were identified, and < 50% of these (27/65) incorporated HBsAg loss in their models. Only 15/27 stated HBsAg loss health state costs, 15/27 stated HBsAg loss health state utilities, and 11/27 mentioned treatment-specific transition probabilities to HBsAg loss. The majority of sources these inputs were derived from are not transparent. CONCLUSIONS: The benefits of FC in current HE models are not well captured, as FC is often not reported or not directly related to modelled treatments. This has the potential for novel agents with higher efficacy compared with SoC to be overlooked and undervalued if their worth is not appropriately communicated. In order to ensure optimal access for patients to new and effective therapies, it is important that the benefits of FC are better assessed and captured within HE models.

A comparative network meta-analysis of standard of care treatments in treatment-naïve chronic hepatitis B patients.

Objective: Published network meta-analyses of chronic hepatitis B (CHB) treatments are either out-of-date or excluded key treatments. Therefore, we aimed to comprehensively update the efficacy evidence for the following end points: Hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) loss, hepatitis B early antigen (HBeAg) seroconversion and hepatitis B virus DNA (HBV DNA) suppression. Materials & methods: Approved treatments in CHB and their combinations were evaluated. A systematic literature review was conducted to identify all randomized controlled trials in treatment-naïve CHB patients. Included studies reported at least one of the end points of interest. A frequentist probability network meta-analysis was performed for each end point. The choice of fixed effect or random-effect model was based on the I-square statistic, a measure of variation in study outcomes between studies. The analyses were performed separately for HBeAg-positive and HBeAg-negative patients. For the primary analyses, end points measured 48 ± 4 weeks after treatment initiation were considered. Results: A total of 47 randomized controlled trials (13,826 patients), covering 23 unique treatment regimens, were included: a total of 29 reported HBsAg loss, 36 reported HBeAg seroconversion and 37 reported HBV DNA suppression. For both HBsAg loss and HBeAg seroconversion, pegylated interferon-based regimens were the most effective strategy in both HBeAg-positive and HBeAg-negative patients. On the other hand, for HBV DNA suppression, nucleosides-based regimens were the most effective strategy in both HBeAg-positive and HBeAg-negative patients. Conclusion: Our findings confirm available evidence around the comparative efficacy of available CHB treatments. Therefore, they can be used to update relevant cost-effectiveness analyses and clinical guidelines.

Preferences of Patients with Chronic Hepatitis B - A Discrete Choice Experiment on the Acceptability of Functional Cure.

BACKGROUND: Current antiviral therapies for chronic hepatitis B (CHB) rarely achieve functional cure, thus often requiring lifelong therapy. A therapy achieving functional cure in a significant percentage of patients could change the treatment landscape substantially. However, the acceptability of functional cure by patients is unknown, especially if associated with additional treatment burden. METHODS: A Discrete Choice Experiment (DCE) including patients with CHB was performed between 2018 and 2019 in Germany. Patient inclusion criteria were confirmed CHB; age of at least 18 years; no history of hepatocellular carcinoma; no HIV or HCV/HDV co-infection. The final DCE included the following attributes: route of administration (oral administration by tablets; subcutaneous injection + tablets; intramuscular electroporation + tablets), side effect frequency (0/1/3 days per month), functional cure (1%/30%/50% of patients), frequency of physician visits (monthly, half-yearly) and travel time to treating physician (15/45 min). RESULTS: The main analysis sample consisted of 108 patients with CHB (mean age: 49.1 years, female: 37.0%, average time since CHB diagnosis: 14.0 years, 52.8% with Hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) chronic HBV infection). High efficacy was found to be the main driver of decisions for/against the presented treatment options (impacted 57% of patients' decisions), followed by therapy regimen (17%), safety profile (12%) and number of physician visits (11%). Latent class analysis revealed first insights into different decision patterns, with age, gender and previous side-effect experience affecting patients' decisions. CONCLUSION: In comparison to all other treatment-related attributes such as therapy regimen or safety profile, patients with CHB showed a strong preference towards a scenario where a substantial number of patients benefit from sustained disease remission, which mimics functional cure.

Impact of Stigma on People Living with Chronic Hepatitis B.

BACKGROUND: People with chronic infectious diseases such as hepatitis B can face stigma, which can influence everyday life as well as willingness to engage with medical professionals or disclose disease status. A systematic literature review was performed to characterize the level and type of stigma experienced by people infected with hepatitis B virus (HBV) as well as to identify instruments used to measure it. METHODS: A literature review was performed using the PubMed, Embase and Cochrane Library databases to identify studies describing HBV-related stigma. For inclusion, articles were required to be published in full-text form, in English and report quantitative or qualitative data on HBV-related stigma that could be extracted. RESULTS: A total of 23 (17 quantitative and 6 qualitative) articles examined HBV-related stigma. The scope of the review was global but nearly all identified studies were conducted in countries in the WHO Southeast Asia or Western Pacific regions or within immigrant communities in North America. Several quantitative studies utilized tools specifically designed to assess aspects of stigma. Qualitative studies were primarily conducted via patient interviews. Internalized and social stigma were common among people living with chronic HBV . Some people also perceived structural/institutional stigma, with up to 20% believing that they may be denied healthcare and up to 30% stating they may experience workplace discrimination due to HBV. CONCLUSION: HBV-related stigma is common, particularly in some countries in Southeast Asia and the Western Pacific region and among Asian immigrant communities, but is poorly characterized in non-Asian populations. Initiatives are needed to document and combat stigma (particularly in settings/jurisdictions where it is poorly described) as well as its clinical and socioeconomic consequences.

Evaluating the Effect of Standard of Care Treatment on Burden of Chronic Hepatitis B: A Retrospective Analysis of the United States Veterans Population.

INTRODUCTION: This study aimed to characterize chronic hepatitis B (CHB)-infected patients and estimate the association between nucleos(t)ide analogue (NA) persistence and economic outcomes using data from the Veterans Health Administration (VHA) database. METHODS: Patients (at least 18 years of age) with two or more claims for CHB and at least one pharmacy claim for NA were identified using VHA data from 1 April 2013 to 31 March 2018. The index date was the first NA prescription fill date during 1 October 2014 to 31 March 2017. Persistence and non-persistence to NA treatment were assessed during the first 2 years post index date. Non-persistence was defined as at least one failure to refill medication within 30 days from the run-out date. Generalized linear models were used to compare health care utilization and costs between persistent and non-persistent patients. RESULTS: Among patients treated with NAs (N = 2368), 1428 (60%) were CHB mono-infected and 748 (32%) were HIV co-infected. Total costs per patient per year (PPPY) were $39,240, $29,957, and $55,220 PPPY for NA-treated, mono-infected, and HIV co-infected patients, respectively. An inception cohort of 564 patients (24%), without a NA prescription in the 6 months pre-index period and at least 2 years of follow-up, was created. Persistence among the inception cohort was 29% for first year and 14% for first 2 years. After adjustment for baseline differences, persistent patients had lower cumulative overall health care costs compared to non-persistent patients, with a net cost saving of $851 (p > 0.05) in the first 2 years. CONCLUSION: CHB is associated with considerable economic burden. We observed suboptimal persistence to NAs which decreased over time. Short-term savings could be generated for CHB-infected patients when they remain persistent to NAs.

Economic study of the value of expanding HCV treatment capacity in Germany.

BACKGROUND: Today's highly efficacious, low-toxicity interferon-free treatment regimens for chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) can cure most patients with HCV in 12-24 weeks. The aim of this study was to understand how the introduction of shorter duration treatment regimens for HCV will impact the capacity for treatment and value to society. METHODS: A Markov model of HCV transmission and progression was constructed, incorporating nationally representative data on HCV prevalence, incidence and progression; mortality, treatment costs, medical expenditures, employment probabilities and disability payments in Germany. The model was stratified by HCV genotype and exposure route (1-time healthcare exposure, injection drug use and sexual activity). Treatment scenarios were based on German treatment guidelines and projected treatment capacity. The impact of different treatment scenarios on disease transmission and prevalence, quality-adjusted life years (QALYs), treatment costs, medical expenditures, employment and disability expenditures was calculated. RESULTS: Depending on their adoption profile, new treatment regimens and protocols introduced over the next several years will increase HCV treatment capacity in Germany by 8-30%, reducing disease transmission and prevalence, increasing QALYs and adding €94-310 million in discounted social value (QALYs plus medical savings net of treatment costs) over a 30-year horizon. Additional social value in the form of higher employment and lower disability would also result. CONCLUSIONS: The introduction of shorter HCV treatment regimens and the resulting increased treatment capacity in Germany would result in large gains to society by reducing disease transmission and prevalence, resulting in longer, healthier, more productive lives for current and future generations.

Conceptual framework for outcomes research studies of hepatitis C: an analytical review.

Hepatitis C virus infection is one of the main causes of chronic liver disease worldwide. Until recently, the standard antiviral regimen for hepatitis C was a combination of an interferon derivative and ribavirin, but a plethora of new antiviral drugs is becoming available. While these new drugs have shown great efficacy in clinical trials, observational studies are needed to determine their effectiveness in clinical practice. Previous observational studies have shown that multiple factors, besides the drug regimen, affect patient outcomes in clinical practice. Here, we provide an analytical review of published outcomes studies of the management of hepatitis C virus infection. A conceptual framework defines the relationships between four categories of variables: health care system structure, patient characteristics, process-of-care, and patient outcomes. This framework can provide a starting point for outcomes studies addressing the use and effectiveness of new antiviral drug treatments.

Determinant Factors of the Direct Medical Costs Associated with Genotype 1 Hepatitis C Infection in Treatment-Experienced Patients.

OBJECTIVE: Limited evidence is available on predictors of medical resource utilization (MRU) and related direct costs, especially in treatment-experienced patients infected with genotype 1 hepatitis C virus (HCV). This study aimed at investigating patient and treatment characteristics that predict MRU and related non-drug costs in treatment-experienced patients with chronic hepatitis C (CHC) treated with simeprevir (SMV) or telapravir (TVR) in combination with pegylated interferon and ribavirin (PegIFN/R). PATIENTS AND METHODS: A total of 709 patients who completed the 72-week ATTAIN trial were included in the study. Cost data were analysed from the UK NHS perspective. Descriptive statistics and regression analyses were used to determine patterns and predictors of total MRU-related costs associated with SMV/PegIFN/R and TVR/PegIFN/R. RESULTS: Independent predictors for total MRU-related costs were age, region and the following interaction terms: (1) gender × F3-F4 METAVIR score × baseline viral load (BLVL), (2) body mass index (BMI) × F3-F4 METAVIR score × prior response to PegIFN/R and (3) gender × achievement of SVR at 12 weeks (SVR12) × BLVL. A F3-F4 METAVIR score was a stronger predictor of total MRU-related costs than SVR12. Predictors of adverse events included older age, female gender, low BMI, TVR/PegIFN/R and SVR12. Wilcoxon rank sum test revealed comparable total MRU-related costs between SMV/PegIFN/R and TVR/PegIFN/R. CONCLUSION: To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first to describe the relationship between commonly admitted predictors of MRU-related costs and their joint effect on total MRU-related costs in treatment-experienced patients with CHC. The identified predictors of MRU-related costs suggest that significant treatment costs can be avoided by starting treatment early before the disease progresses. Furthermore, adverse events seem to be the most important factor to take into consideration for the choice of treatment, especially when therapeutic options are associated with similar levels of medical resource utilization and associated costs.

Cost-utility analysis of palivizumab in Italy: results from a simulation model in the prophylaxis of respiratory syncytial virus infection (RSV) among high-risk preterm infants.

INTRODUCTION: The aim of this study was to assess the cost-utility of palivizumab versus no prophylaxis in the prevention of respiratory syncytial virus infection among high-risk preterm infants. METHODS: We used and adapted a pre-existent model in which two cohorts of patients received palivizumab or no prophylaxis. The patients were followed for their expected lifetimes. The economic evaluation was conducted from the perspective of the Italian National Health Service. We considered Life-Years Gained (LYGs), Quality-Adjusted Life-Years (QALYs) and direct medical costs (pharmacological treatment, hospitalization, recurrences for wheezing, etc.). LYGs and QALYs were based on the results of a double blind cohort study with prospective follow-up and direct medical costs were based on Italian treatment patterns. Benefits and costs were discounted at 3%. Costs were assessed in 2007 Euros. Sensitivity and threshold analysis on key clinical and economic parameters were performed. RESULT: For the two cohorts, the expected life-years (per patient) with palivizumab versus no prophylaxis were 29.842 and 29.754 years, respectively. Quality-adjusted life years (per patient) with palivizumab were 29.202, and for no prophylaxis were 29.043. The expected cost (per patient) was euro 6,244.20 with palivizumab and euro 4,867.70 with no prophylaxis. We calculated for palivizumab versus no prophylaxis the incremental cost per LYG and per QALY gained. It was euro 15,568.65 and euro 8,676.74, respectively. CONCLUSION: This study suggests that, compared with no prophylaxis, palivizumab is cost-effective in the prevention of respiratory syncytial virus infection among high risk preterm infants.