Time-Resolved Photoelectron Studies of Thiophene and 2,5-Dimethylthiophene.

The photoinduced dynamics of thiophene and 2,5-dimethylthiophene (2,5-DMT) were investigated upon excitation at 200 and 255 nm (2,5-DMT only) using time-resolved photoelectron spectroscopy and compared with results from ab initio coupled cluster calculations. For thiophene, depopulation of the initially excited B2(π3π4*) state to the lower-lying A1(π2π4*) state occurs within 25 ± 20 fs, with a subsequent bifurcation into a ring-puckering channel and a ring-opening channel with lifetimes of 80 ± 20 and 450 ± 50 fs, respectively. For 2,5-DMT, the dynamics following excitation at 200 nm is described by a monoexponential decay with a time constant of 120 ± 20 fs, while that following excitation at 255 nm is best fit by a biexponential decay with time constants of 115 ± 20 fs and 15 ± 3 ps, respectively. The fast signal observed after excitation of 2,5-DMT is assigned to the ring-opening channel, which is favored with respect to thiophene due to a lower excited-state barrier along the ring-opening coordinate and an increased inertia toward the ring-puckering channel. Coupled cluster calculations have been undertaken to compare the relaxation dynamics of thiophene to thiazole and isothiazole. For the latter two molecules, we find a strong gradient along the ring-opening coordinate in the Franck-Condon region of the initially populated ππ* state and predict that ring-opening is the dominating relaxation channel after photoexcitation. We use the extracted information for a comparison of the thiophene dynamics with the light-induced processes observed in other five-membered heterocyclic molecules.

The ring-opening channel and the influence of Rydberg states on the excited state dynamics of furan and its derivatives.

One important relaxation pathway for photo-excited five-membered heterocyclic organic molecules is ring-opening via a dissociative πσ* state. In this study, we investigate the influence of this pathway in furan and several hydrogenated and methylated derivatives by combining time-resolved photoelectron spectroscopy with time-dependent density functional theory and coupled cluster calculations. We find strong experimental evidence that the ring-opening channel is the major relaxation channel in furan, 2,3-dihydrofuran, and 2-methylfuran (2-MF). In 2,5-dimethylfuran (25-DMF), however, we observe that the molecules relax either via a π3s Rydberg state or through a direct return to the ground state by undergoing ring-puckering motions. From the supporting calculations, for 2-MF and 25-DMF, we predict that there is strong mixing between the πσ* state and the π3s Rydberg state along the ring opening pathway. However, in 25-DMF, no crossing between the πσ*/π3s state and the initially excited ππ* state can be found along the ring opening coordinate, effectively blocking this channel.

Influence of Alkoxy Groups on the Photoinduced Dynamics of Organic Molecules Exemplified on Alkyl Vinyl Ethers.

A series of different alkyl vinyl ethers is investigated to decipher the possible reaction channels upon photoexcitation to the π3s-Rydberg and the ππ*-valence state at 200 nm using time-resolved photoelectron spectroscopy and on-the-fly time-dependent density functional theory dynamics simulations. The results indicate two possible relaxation pathways: (1) a radiationless decay through the ππ*-state back to the ground state via torsion of the C═C double bond, in accordance with the dynamics found in ethylene; and (2) a fast dissociation of the C-O bond between the alkyl and the vinoxy group in the πσ*-state. The latter state can be accessed only after excitation to the π3s-Rydberg state (quantum yield of ∼50% according to the dynamics simulations). Additionally, the excited state barrier leading to formation of a vinyl radical was found to be too high to be crossed. These results indicate that the dynamics of ethers crucially depend on the excitation wavelength and that the πσ*-state constitutes an important competitive reaction channel that leads to dissociation of the molecules.

Hexamethylcyclopentadiene: time-resolved photoelectron spectroscopy and ab initio multiple spawning simulations.

Progress in our understanding of ultrafast light-induced processes in molecules is best achieved through a close combination of experimental and theoretical approaches. Direct comparison is obtained if theory is able to directly reproduce experimental observables. Here, we present a joint approach comparing time-resolved photoelectron spectroscopy (TRPES) with ab initio multiple spawning (AIMS) simulations on the MS-MR-CASPT2 level of theory. We disentangle the relationship between two phenomena that dominate the immediate molecular response upon light absorption: a spectrally dependent delay of the photoelectron signal and an induction time prior to excited state depopulation in dynamics simulations. As a benchmark molecule, we have chosen hexamethylcyclopentadiene, which shows an unprecedentedly large spectral delay of (310 ± 20) fs in TRPES experiments. For the dynamics simulations, methyl groups were replaced by "hydrogen atoms" having mass 15 and TRPES spectra were calculated. These showed an induction time of (108 ± 10) fs which could directly be assigned to progress along a torsional mode leading to the intersection seam with the molecular ground state. In a stepladder-type approach, the close connection between the two phenomena could be elucidated, allowing for a comparison with other polyenes and supporting the general validity of this finding for their excited state dynamics. Thus, the combination of TRPES and AIMS proves to be a powerful tool for a thorough understanding of ultrafast excited state dynamics in polyenes.

Ultrafast photoinduced dynamics of halogenated cyclopentadienes: observation of geminate charge-transfer complexes in solution.

The photoinduced dynamics of the fully halogenated cyclopentadienes C5Cl6 and C5Br6 have been investigated in solution and gas phase by femtosecond time-resolved spectroscopy. Both in solution and in gas phase, homolytic dissociation into a halogen radical and a C5X5 (X = Cl, Br) radical was observed. In liquid phase, solvent-dependent formation of charge transfer complexes between geminate radicals was observed for the first time. These complexes were found to be surprisingly stable and offered the opportunity to follow the dynamics of specific radical pairs. In the case of C5Cl6 in trichloroethanol, a reaction of the chlorine radical with molecules from the solvent cage was observed.

Femtosecond UV excitation in imidazolium-based ionic liquids.

Femtosecond pump-probe absorption spectroscopy was employed to investigate ultrafast dynamics in various room temperature ionic liquids (RTILs) based on imidazolium cations, i.e., 1,3-dimethylimidazolium iodide ([DMIM]I), 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium iodide ([BMIM]I), 1-hexyl-3-methylimidazolium iodide ([HMIM]I), 1-hexyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride ([HMIM]Cl), and 1-methyl-3-octylimidazolium chloride ([MOIM]Cl). Immediately after photoexcitation, an induced absorption was observed at various probe wavelengths (555-1556 nm). Afterward, the decay of the induced absorption was found to be independent of the alkyl chain length and viscosity of the ionic liquids. Two alternative mechanisms were proposed to explain the dynamics. In a first scenario excess electrons are generated through one-photon photodetachment of halides analogous to aqueous halide photodetachment. The dynamics in this case were analyzed with the help of a competing kinetic model proposed for geminate recombination in aqueous chloride photodetachment. Alternatively, imidazolium cations may be subject to photoionization. The transient NIR absorption can then be assigned to imidazolium dimer radical cations and/or excess electrons which may be formed upon association of imidazolium radicals with their parent cations. Both scenarios suggest that a thorough explanation of the ultrafast dynamics probably requires the implication of cooperative effects in the ionic liquids upon photoexcitation.

Ultrafast relaxation dynamics of perchlorinated cycloheptatriene in solution.

The photochemistry of perchlorinated cycloheptatriene (CHTCl(8)) has been studied by means of ultrafast pump-probe, transient anisotropy and continuous UV-irradiation experiments in various solvents as well as by DFT calculations. After UV-excitation to the 1A' '-state, two competing reactions occur--a [1,7]-sigmatropic chlorine migration via two ultrafast internal conversions and a [4,5]-electrocyclization forming octachlorobicylo[3.2.0]hepta-[2,6]-diene. The first reaction has been studied by excitation with a 263 nm femtosecond-laser pulse. Pump-probe experiments reveal a first, solvent-independent time constant, tau1(CHTCl(8)) = 140 fs, that can be associated with the electronic relaxation of the 2A'-1A' ' transition, while a second one, tau2(CHTCl(8)), ranges from 0.9 to 1.8 ps depending on the polarity of the solvent. This finding is consistent with a [1,7]-chlorine migration during the 1A'-2A' transition where the migrating chlorine atom is partly negatively charged. The charge separation has also been confirmed by DFT calculations. Transient anisotropy measurements result in a time zero value of r(0) = 0.35 after deconvolution and a decay constant of tau1(a) = 120 fs, which can be explained by vibrational motions of CHTCl(8) in the electronically excited states, 1A' ' and 2A'. After continuous UV-irradiation of CHTCl(8), octachlorobicylo[3.2.0]hepta-[2,6]-diene is primarily formed with a solvent-dependent yield. From these investigations, we suggest a relaxation mechanism for CHTCl(8) after photoexcitation that is comparable to cycloheptatriene.