Effect of Tele-ICU on Clinical Outcomes of Critically Ill Patients: The TELESCOPE Randomized Clinical Trial.

Importance: Despite its implementation in several countries, there has not been a randomized clinical trial to assess whether telemedicine in intensive care units (ICUs) could improve clinical outcomes of critically ill patients. Objective: To determine whether an intervention comprising daily multidisciplinary rounds and monthly audit and feedback meetings performed by a remote board-certified intensivist reduces ICU length of stay (LOS) compared with usual care. Design, Setting, and Participants: A parallel cluster randomized clinical trial with a baseline period in 30 general ICUs in Brazil in which daily multidisciplinary rounds performed by board-certified intensivists were not routinely available. All consecutive adult patients (aged ≥18 years) admitted to the participating ICUs, excluding those admitted due to justice-related issues, were enrolled between June 1, 2019, and April 7, 2021, with last follow-up on July 6, 2021. Intervention: Remote daily multidisciplinary rounds led by a board-certified intensivist through telemedicine, monthly audit and feedback meetings for discussion of ICU performance indicators, and provision of evidence-based clinical protocols. Main Outcomes and Measures: The primary outcome was ICU LOS at the patient level. Secondary outcomes included ICU efficiency, in-hospital mortality, incidence of central line-associated bloodstream infections, ventilator-associated events, catheter-associated urinary tract infections, ventilator-free days at 28 days, patient-days receiving oral or enteral feeding, patient-days under light sedation, and rate of patients with oxygen saturation values under that of normoxemia, assessed using generalized linear mixed models. Results: Among 17 024 patients (1794 in the baseline period and 15 230 in the intervention period), the mean (SD) age was 61 (18) years, 44.7% were female, the median (IQR) Sequential Organ Failure Assessment score was 6 (2-9), and 45.5% were invasively mechanically ventilated at admission. The median (IQR) time under intervention was 20 (16-21) months. Mean (SD) ICU LOS, adjusted for baseline assessment, did not differ significantly between the tele-critical care and usual care groups (8.1 [10.0] and 7.1 [9.0] days; percentage change, 8.2% [95% CI, -5.4% to 23.8%]; P = .24). Results were similar in sensitivity analyses and prespecified subgroups. There were no statistically significant differences in any other secondary or exploratory outcomes. Conclusions and Relevance: Daily multidisciplinary rounds conducted by a board-certified intensivist through telemedicine did not reduce ICU LOS in critically ill adult patients. Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT03920501.

Azithromycin in addition to standard of care versus standard of care alone in the treatment of patients admitted to the hospital with severe COVID-19 in Brazil (COALITION II): a randomised clinical trial.

BACKGROUND: The efficacy and safety of azithromycin in the treatment of COVID-19 remain uncertain. We assessed whether adding azithromycin to standard of care, which included hydroxychloroquine, would improve clinical outcomes of patients admitted to the hospital with severe COVID-19. METHODS: We did an open-label, randomised clinical trial at 57 centres in Brazil. We enrolled patients admitted to hospital with suspected or confirmed COVID-19 and at least one additional severity criteria as follows: use of oxygen supplementation of more than 4 L/min flow; use of high-flow nasal cannula; use of non-invasive mechanical ventilation; or use of invasive mechanical ventilation. Patients were randomly assigned (1:1) to azithromycin (500 mg via oral, nasogastric, or intravenous administration once daily for 10 days) plus standard of care or to standard of care without macrolides. All patients received hydroxychloroquine (400 mg twice daily for 10 days) because that was part of standard of care treatment in Brazil for patients with severe COVID-19. The primary outcome, assessed by an independent adjudication committee masked to treatment allocation, was clinical status at day 15 after randomisation, assessed by a six-point ordinal scale, with levels ranging from 1 to 6 and higher scores indicating a worse condition (with odds ratio [OR] greater than 1·00 favouring the control group). The primary outcome was assessed in all patients in the intention-to-treat (ITT) population who had severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 infection confirmed by molecular or serological testing before randomisation (ie, modified ITT [mITT] population). Safety was assessed in all patients according to which treatment they received, regardless of original group assignment. This trial was registered at ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT04321278. FINDINGS: 447 patients were enrolled from March 28 to May 19, 2020. COVID-19 was confirmed in 397 patients who constituted the mITT population, of whom 214 were assigned to the azithromycin group and 183 to the control group. In the mITT population, the primary endpoint was not significantly different between the azithromycin and control groups (OR 1·36 [95% CI 0·94-1·97], p=0·11). Rates of adverse events, including clinically relevant ventricular arrhythmias, resuscitated cardiac arrest, acute kidney failure, and corrected QT interval prolongation, were not significantly different between groups. INTERPRETATION: In patients with severe COVID-19, adding azithromycin to standard of care treatment (which included hydroxychloroquine) did not improve clinical outcomes. Our findings do not support the routine use of azithromycin in combination with hydroxychloroquine in patients with severe COVID-19. FUNDING: COALITION COVID-19 Brazil and EMS.

Smart Care™ versus respiratory physiotherapy-driven manual weaning for critically ill adult patients: a randomized controlled trial.

INTRODUCTION: A recent meta-analysis showed that weaning with SmartCare™ (Dräger, Lübeck, Germany) significantly decreased weaning time in critically ill patients. However, its utility compared with respiratory physiotherapist-protocolized weaning is still a matter of debate. We hypothesized that weaning with SmartCare™ would be as effective as respiratory physiotherapy-driven weaning in critically ill patients. METHODS: Adult critically ill patients mechanically ventilated for more than 24 hours in the adult intensive care unit of the Albert Einstein Hospital, São Paulo, Brazil, were randomly assigned to be weaned either by progressive discontinuation of pressure support ventilation (PSV) with SmartCare™. Demographic data, respiratory function parameters, level of PSV, tidal volume (VT), positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP), inspired oxygen fraction (FIO2), peripheral oxygen saturation (SpO2), end-tidal carbon dioxide concentration (EtCO2) and airway occlusion pressure at 0.1 second (P0.1) were recorded at the beginning of the weaning process and before extubation. Mechanical ventilation time, weaning duration and rate of extubation failure were compared. RESULTS: Seventy patients were enrolled 35 in each group. There was no difference between the two groups concerning age, sex or diagnosis at study entry. There was no difference in maximal inspiratory pressure, maximal expiratory pressure, forced vital capacity or rapid shallow breathing index at the beginning of the weaning trial. PEEP, VT, FIO2, SpO2, respiratory rate, EtCO2 and P0.1 were similar between the two groups, but PSV was not (median: 8 vs. 10 cmH2O; p =0.007). When the patients were ready for extubation, PSV (8 vs. 5 cmH2O; p =0.015) and PEEP (8 vs. 5 cmH2O; p <0.001) were significantly higher in the respiratory physiotherapy-driven weaning group. Total duration of mechanical ventilation (3.5 [2.0-7.3] days vs. 4.1 [2.7-7.1] days; p =0.467) and extubation failure (2 vs. 2; p =1.00) were similar between the two groups. Weaning duration was shorter in the respiratory physiotherapy-driven weaning group (60 [50-80] minutes vs. 110 [80-130] minutes; p <0.001). CONCLUSION: A respiratory physiotherapy-driven weaning protocol can decrease weaning time compared with an automatic system, as it takes into account individual weaning difficulties. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Clinicaltrials.gov Identifier: NCT02122016 . Date of Registration: 27 August 2013.

Sepsis-related deaths in Brazil: an analysis of the national mortality registry from 2002 to 2010.

INTRODUCTION: Limited population-based epidemiologic information about sepsis' demography, including its mortality and temporal changes is available from developing countries. We investigated the epidemiology of sepsis deaths in Brazil using secondary data from the Brazilian Mortality Information System. METHODS: Retrospective descriptive analysis of Brazilian multiple-cause-of-death data between 2002 and 2010, with sepsis-associated International Classification of Diseases, 10th Revision (ICD-10) code indicated as the cause of death. Population-based sepsis associated mortality rates and trends were estimated. Annual population-based mortality rates were calculated using age-stratified population estimates from the 2010 census provided by the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics as denominators. RESULTS: The total number of annual deaths recorded in Brazil increased over the decade, from 982,294 deaths reported in 2002 to 1,133,761 deaths reported in 2010. The number of sepsis associated deaths also increased both in absolute numbers and proportions from 95,972 (9.77% of total deaths) in 2002 to 186,712 deaths (16.46%) in 2010. The age-adjusted rate of sepsis-associated mortality increased from 69.5 deaths per 100,000 to 97.8 deaths per 100,000 population from 2002 to 2010 (P < 0.001). Sepsis-associated mortality was higher in individuals older than 60 years of age as compared to subjects aged 0 to 20 years (adjusted rate ratio 15.7 (95% confidence interval (CI) 15.6 to 15.8)) and in male subjects (1.15 (95% CI 1.15 to 1.16)). CONCLUSIONS: Between 2002 and 2010 the contribution of sepsis to all cause mortality as reported in multiple-cause-of-death forms increased significantly in Brazil. Age-adjusted mortality rates by sepsis also increased in the last decade. Our results confirm the importance of sepsis as a significant healthcare issue in Brazil.

Time course of haemodynamic, respiratory and inflammatory disturbances induced by experimental acute pulmonary polystyrene microembolism.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: The time course of cardiopulmonary alterations after pulmonary embolism has not been clearly demonstrated and nor has the role of systemic inflammation on the pathogenesis of the disease. This study aimed to evaluate over 12 h the effects of pulmonary embolism caused by polystyrene microspheres on the haemodynamics, lung mechanics and gas exchange and on interleukin-6 production. METHODS: Ten large white pigs (weight 35-42 kg) had arterial and pulmonary catheters inserted and pulmonary embolism was induced in five pigs by injection of polystyrene microspheres (diameter approximately 300 micromol l(-1)) until a value of pulmonary mean arterial pressure of twice the baseline was obtained. Five other animals received only saline. Haemodynamic and respiratory data and pressure-volume curves of the respiratory system were collected. A bronchoscopy was performed before and 12 h after embolism, when the animals were euthanized. RESULTS: The embolism group developed hypoxaemia that was not corrected with high oxygen fractions, as well as higher values of dead space, airway resistance and lower respiratory compliance levels. Acute haemodynamic alterations included pulmonary arterial hypertension with preserved systemic arterial pressure and cardiac index. These derangements persisted until the end of the experiments. The plasma interleukin-6 concentrations were similar in both groups; however, an increase in core temperature and a nonsignificant higher concentration of bronchoalveolar lavage proteins were found in the embolism group. CONCLUSION: Acute pulmonary embolism induced by polystyrene microspheres in pigs produces a 12-h lasting hypoxaemia and a high dead space associated with high airway resistance and low compliance. There were no plasma systemic markers of inflammation, but a higher central temperature and a trend towards higher bronchoalveolar lavage proteins were found.

Mechanical power of ventilation is associated with mortality in critically ill patients: an analysis of patients in two observational cohorts.

PURPOSE: Mechanical power (MP) may unify variables known to be related to development of ventilator-induced lung injury. The aim of this study is to examine the association between MP and mortality in critically ill patients receiving invasive ventilation for at least 48 h. METHODS: This is an analysis of data stored in the databases of the MIMIC-III and eICU. Critically ill patients receiving invasive ventilation for at least 48 h were included. The exposure of interest was MP. The primary outcome was in-hospital mortality. RESULTS: Data from 8207 patients were analyzed. Median MP during the second 24 h was 21.4 (16.2-28.1) J/min in MIMIC-III and 16.0 (11.7-22.1) J/min in eICU. MP was independently associated with in-hospital mortality [odds ratio per 5 J/min increase (OR) 1.06 (95% confidence interval (CI) 1.01-1.11); p = 0.021 in MIMIC-III, and 1.10 (1.02-1.18); p = 0.010 in eICU]. MP was also associated with ICU mortality, 30-day mortality, and with ventilator-free days, ICU and hospital length of stay. Even at low tidal volume, high MP was associated with in-hospital mortality [OR 1.70 (1.32-2.18); p < 0.001] and other secondary outcomes. Finally, there is a consistent increase in the risk of death with MP higher than 17.0 J/min. CONCLUSION: High MP of ventilation is independently associated with higher in-hospital mortality and several other outcomes in ICU patients receiving invasive ventilation for at least 48 h.

Readmission to the Intensive Care Unit: Incidence, Risk Factors, Resource Use, and Outcomes. A Retrospective Cohort Study.

RATIONALE: Readmission to the intensive care unit (ICU) is associated with poor clinical outcomes, increased length of ICU and hospital stay, and higher costs. Nevertheless, knowledge of epidemiology of ICU readmissions, risk factors, and attributable outcomes is restricted to developed countries. OBJECTIVES: To determine the effect of ICU readmissions on in-hospital mortality, determine incidence of ICU readmissions, identify predictors of ICU readmissions and hospital mortality, and compare resource use and outcomes between readmitted and nonreadmitted patients in a developing country. METHODS: This retrospective single-center cohort study was conducted in a 40-bed, open medical-surgical ICU of a private, tertiary care hospital in São Paulo, Brazil. The Local Ethics Committee at Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein approved the study protocol, and the need for informed consent was waived. All consecutive adult (≥18 yr) patients admitted to the ICU between June 1, 2013 and July 1, 2015 were enrolled in this study. RESULTS: Comparisons were made between patients readmitted and not readmitted to the ICU. Logistic regression analyses were performed to identify predictors of ICU readmissions and hospital mortality. Out of 5,779 patients admitted to the ICU, 576 (10%) were readmitted to the ICU during the same hospitalization. Compared with nonreadmitted patients, patients readmitted to the ICU were more often men (349 of 576 patients [60.6%] vs. 2,919 of 5,203 patients [56.1%]; P = 0.042), showed a higher (median [interquartile range]) severity of illness (Simplified Acute Physiology III score) at index ICU admission (50 [41-61] vs. 42 [32-54], respectively, for readmitted and nonreadmitted patients; P < 0.001), and were more frequently admitted due to medical reasons (425 of 576 [73.8%] vs. 2,998 of 5,203 [57.6%], respectively, for readmitted and nonreadmitted patients; P < 0.001). Simplified Acute Physiology III score (P < 0.001), ICU admission from the ward (odds ratio [OR], 1.907; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.463-2.487; P < 0.001), vasopressors need during index ICU stay (OR, 1.391; 95% CI, 1.130-1.713; P = 0.002), and length of ICU stay (P = 0.001) were independent predictors of ICU readmission. After adjusting for severity of illness, ICU readmission (OR, 4.103; 95% CI, 3.226-5.518; P < 0.001), admission source, presence of cancer, use of vasopressors, mechanical ventilation or renal replacement therapy, length of ICU stay, and nighttime ICU discharge were associated with increased risk of in-hospital death. CONCLUSIONS: Readmissions to the ICU were frequent and strongly related to poor outcomes. The degree to which ICU readmissions are preventable as well as the main causes of preventable ICU readmissions need to be further determined.

[Noninvasive mechanical ventilation with positive pressure]. / Ventilação mecânica não-invasiva com pressão positiva.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: The II Brazilian Consensus Conference on Mechanical Ventilation was published in 2000. Knowledge on the field of mechanical ventilation evolved rapidly since then, with the publication of numerous clinical studies with potential impact on the ventilatory management of critically ill patients. Moreover, the evolving concept of evidence - based medicine determined the grading of clinical recommendations according to the methodological value of the studies on which they are based. This explicit approach has broadened the understanding and adoption of clinical recommendations. For these reasons, AMIB - Associação de Medicina Intensiva Brasileira and SBPT - Sociedade Brasileira de Pneumologia e Tisiologia - decided to update the recommendations of the II Brazilian Consensus. Non-Invasive Mechanical ventilation has been one of the updated topics. Describe the most important topics on the non-invasive mechanical ventilation and suggest the main therapeutic approaches of this modality. METHODS: Systematic review of the published literature and gradation of the studies in levels of evidence, using the keywords "non-invasive mechanical ventilation". RESULTS: Recommendations on the non-invasive mechanical ventilation during respiratory failure and weaning are presented. CONCLUSIONS: Non-invasive mechanical ventilation is the main form of ventilatory support during exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and in acute pulmonary edema patients.

In vitro evaluation of aerosol bronchodilator delivery during noninvasive positive pressure ventilation: effect of ventilator settings and nebulizer position.

OBJECTIVE: Respiratory failure due to exacerbation of obstructive lung disease has been successfully treated with noninvasive positive pressure ventilation (NPPV). However, there have been no reports of factors affecting aerosol delivery during NPPV. Our objective was to determine the effect of ventilator settings and nebulizer position on albuterol delivery during NPPV. DESIGN: Bench model study. SETTING: University laboratory. SUBJECTS: None. INTERVENTIONS: A Respironics BiPAP S/T-D30 with a standard circuit was attached to a lung model simulating spontaneous breathing. Inspiratory/expiratory pressures of 10/5, 15/5, 20/5, 15/10, 20/10, and 25/10 cm H2O were tested at respiratory rates of 10 and 20/min. A nebulizer was filled with 5 mg of albuterol in 4 mL of solution, driven with 8 L/min oxygen, and placed at either a proximal (ventilator outlet) or distal (between leak port and lung model connection) position. Albuterol delivery was estimated by measuring the amount of the albuterol collected on a filter placed at the inlet of the lung model. MEASUREMENT AND MAIN RESULTS: Albuterol delivery varied from 5.2 +/- 0.4% to 24.5 +/- 1.3% of the nominal dose and was significantly affected by the position of the nebulizer, respiratory rate, and BiPAP settings (p <.001 in each case). The greatest albuterol delivery was observed with the nebulizer operating at the distal position and a respiratory rate of 20/min. At this respiratory rate and nebulizer placement, albuterol delivery increased with increasing inspiratory pressure levels and decreased as expiratory pressure levels were increased. Nebulizer flow did not affect function of the ventilator. CONCLUSIONS: At optimum nebulizer position (between the leak port and patient connection) and ventilator settings (high inspiratory pressure and low expiratory pressure), as much as 25% of the nominal albuterol dose may be delivered during NPPV.

Position of exhalation port and mask design affect CO2 rebreathing during noninvasive positive pressure ventilation.

OBJECTIVE: Noninvasive positive pressure ventilation may be considered a first line intervention to treat patients with hypercapnic respiratory failure. However, CO2 rebreathing from the ventilator circuit or mask may impair CO2 elimination and load the ventilatory muscles. This study was conducted to evaluate the effect of exhalation port location and mask design on CO2 rebreathing during noninvasive positive pressure ventilation. DESIGN: Lung model evaluation. SETTING: Experimental laboratory of a large university-affiliated hospital. SUBJECTS: A dual-chamber test lung was used to simulate the ventilatory mechanics of a patient with obstructive lung disease. INTERVENTION: Hypercapnic respiratory failure (end-tidal CO2 of 75 mm Hg) and obstructive lung disease were simulated in a double-chamber lung model. A facial mask (inner volume of 165 mL) with exhalation port within the mask (Facial-MEP) or the same mask with exhalation port in the ventilator circuit (Facial-WS) and a total face mask with exhalation port within the mask (inner volume 875 mL, Total Face) were tested during continuous positive airway pressure and pressure support ventilation provided by a single-limb circuit ventilator at the same frequency and tidal volume. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: A capnometer and a flow transducer were placed in the lung model upper airway to measure the volume of CO2 rebreathed and tidal volume (Vt). The inspiratory load was estimated from the pressure variation in the lung model driving chamber (PDR). Volume of CO2 rebreathed was smaller during Facial-MEP compared with the other masks in all tested conditions (p <.001). The Vt and PDR necessary to decrease end-tidal CO2 20% (from 75 to 60 mm Hg) was different among the tested masks (Facial-MEP, Vt 701 +/- 9 mL, PDR 8.1 +/- 0.1 cm H2O/sec; Facial-WS, Vt 745 +/- 9 mL, PDR 10.2 +/- 0.1 cm H2O/sec; Total Face, Vt 790 +/- 12 mL, PDR 11.4 +/- 0.2 cm H2O/sec, p <.001). CONCLUSION: Facial-MEP with its exhalation port within the mask and the smallest mask volume demonstrated less rebreathed CO2 and a lower PDR than either the Facial-WS or Total Face masks. Additional studies are necessary to confirm if mask design can clinically affect patient's inspiratory effort during noninvasive positive pressure ventilation.

Peak volume history and peak pressure-volume curve pressures independently affect the shape of the pressure-volume curve of the respiratory system.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the specific effect of peak volume history pressure on the inflation limb of the pressure-volume curve and peak pressure-volume curve pressure on the deflation limb of the pressure-volume curve. DESIGN: Prospective assessment of pressure-volume curves in saline, lung lavage injured sheep. SETTING: Large animal laboratory of a university-affiliated hospital. SUBJECTS: Eight female Dorset sheep. INTERVENTIONS: : The effect of two volume history pressures (40 and 60 cm H2O) and three pressure-volume curve peak pressures (40, 50, and 60 cm H2O) were randomly compared. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Peak volume history pressure affected the inflation curve beyond the lower inflection point but did not affect the inflection point (Pflex). Peak pressure-volume curve pressure affected the deflation curve. Increased peak volume history pressure increased inflation compliance (p <.05). Increased peak pressure-volume curve pressure increased the point of maximum compliance change on the deflation limb and deflation compliance and decreased compliance between peak pressure and the point of maximum curvature on the deflation limb (p <.05). CONCLUSION: Peak volume history pressure must be considered when interpreting the inflation limb of the pressure-volume curve of the respiratory system beyond the inflection point. The peak pressure achieved during the pressure-volume curve is important during interpretation of deflation compliance and the point of maximum compliance change on the deflation limb.

Ventilação mecânica não-invasiva com pressão positiva / Noninvasive mechanical ventilation with positive pressure

JUSTIFICATIVA E OBJETIVOS: Em 2000, foi publicado o II Consenso Brasileiro de Ventilação Mecânica. Desde então, o conhecimento na área da ventilação mecânica avançou rapidamente, com a publicação de numerosos estudos clínicos que acrescentaram informações importantes para o manejo de pacientes críticos em ventilação artificial. Além disso, a expansão do conceito de Medicina Baseada em Evidências determinou a hierarquização das recomendações clínicas, segundo o rigor metodológico dos estudos que as embasaram. Essa abordagem explícita vem ampliando a compreensão e a aplicação das recomendações clínicas. Por esses motivos, a AMIB - Associação de Medicina Intensiva Brasileira - e a SBPT - Sociedade Brasileira de Pneumologia e Tisiologia - julgaram conveniente a atualização das recomendações descritas no Consenso anterior. Dentre os tópicos selecionados a Ventilação Mecânica Não-Invasiva foi um dos temas propostos. O objetivo deste estudo foi descrever os pontos mais importantes relacionados à ventilação mecânica na forma não-invasiva (VMNI) e sugerir as principais indicações dessa modalidade. MÉTODO: Objetivou-se chegar a um documento suficientemente sintético, que refletisse a melhor evidência disponível na literatura. A revisão bibliográfica baseou-se na busca de estudos através de palavras-chave e em sua gradação conforme níveis de evidência. As palavras-chave utilizadas para a busca foram: Ventilação mecânica não invasiva: Non-invasive mechanical ventilation. RESULTADOS: São apresentadas recomendações quanto à utilização da VMNI nas diversas formas de insuficiência respiratória e no desmame da ventilação mecânica. CONCLUSÕES: A VMNI está indicada como o tratamento preferencial na exacerbação da DPOC, assim como, na assistência de pacientes em edema agudo de pulmão.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: The II Brazilian Consensus Conference on Mechanical Ventilation was published in 2000. Knowledge on the field of mechanical ventilation evolved rapidly since then, with the publication of numerous clinical studies with potential impact on the ventilatory management of critically ill patients. Moreover, the evolving concept of evidence - based medicine determined the grading of clinical recommendations according to the methodological value of the studies on which they are based. This explicit approach has broadened the understanding and adoption of clinical recommendations. For these reasons, AMIB - Associação de Medicina Intensiva Brasileira and SBPT - Sociedade Brasileira de Pneumologia e Tisiologia - decided to update the recommendations of the II Brazilian Consensus. Non-Invasive Mechanical ventilation has been one of the updated topics. Describe the most important topics on the non-invasive mechanical ventilation and suggest the main therapeutic approaches of this modality. METHODS: Systematic review of the published literature and gradation of the studies in levels of evidence, using the keywords "non-invasive mechanical ventilation". RESULTS: Recommendations on the non-invasive mechanical ventilation during respiratory failure and weaning are presented. CONCLUSIONS: Non-invasive mechanical ventilation is the main form of ventilatory support during exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and in acute pulmonary edema patients.