Age-dependent responsiveness of human female bone cells to vitamin D analog and PTH.

Vitamin D less-calcemic analog JKF 1624 F2-2 (JKF) and PTH 1-34 stimulate in human female cultured osteoblasts (Ob) DNA synthesis (DNA), creatine kinase specific activity (CK), 1α, 25 vitamin D hydroxylase mRNA (1OHase) expression and 1,25(OH)2D3 (1,25) production, estrogen receptors (ER) mRNA expression and intracellular and membranal estrogen binding. In the present study, cultured Ob from different ages were subjected to hormonal stimulations and analyzed for different parameters. We found: 1) ERα expression is higher and ERß expression is lower in pre-meno - pausal Ob (prOb), with similar intracellular and membranal binding. 2) JKF and PTH up-regulated ERα and JKF downregulated ERß in both Ob, while PTH stimulated it in post- (poOb) and inhibited it in prOb. 3) There is higher expression of 1OHase mRNA in prOb, but 1,25 production is similar. Both parameters were hormonally stimulated to higher extent in prOb. 4) Ob express 12 and 15 lipoxygenase (LO) mRNA and produce 12- and 15-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (H). 12LO expression is higher and 15LO is lower in prOb, while 12H is higher in prOb and 15H is similar in both. JKF inhibited 12LO expression in prOb and stimulated in poOb, whereas PTH stimulated it to higher extent in prOb. JKF stimulated and PTH inhibited 15LO expression in both; 12 and 15H were stimulated by both hormones in both Ob. 5. PTH and JKF stimulated DNA and CK in both Ob. In conclusion Ob demonstrate some age-dependent response to calciotrophic hormones, but the mechanism and beneficial outcome for human is unclear.

Bone loss in ovariectomized rats: dominant role for estrogen but apparently not for FSH.

Estrogen deficiency as the sole factor underlying post-menopausal osteoporosis was challenged, in light of reports that both follicular stimulation hormone (FSH) receptor and FSHß knockout mice were resistant to bone loss, suggesting a detrimental role for FSH. We assessed whether lowering FSH levels by gonadotropin realizing (GnRH) analog decapeptyl in ovariectomized female rats (OVX) affects bone. Wistar-derived 25 days old OVX female rats were injected for 10 weeks with estradiol-17ß (E(2)), with GnRH analog (decapeptyl) or with both. FSH and luteinizing hormone (LH) serum levels were markedly increased in OVX rats, with smaller growth plates with disrupted architecture; heavy infiltration of bone marrow with numerous adipocytes and reduced thickness of cortical bone. In OVX rats treated with E(2), FSH, and LH levels were intermediate, the tibia was similar to that of intact rats, but there was reduced thickness of cortical bone. In decapeptyl treated OVX rats, FSH and LH levels were suppressed, the organization of growth plate and the trabecular bone were disrupted, and there were fewer proliferative and chondroblastic cells and a large adipocytes population in bone marrow, but an increased trabecular bone volume (TBV). In the E(2) + decapeptyl treatment, FSH and LH levels were suppressed, with partially restored growth plate architecture and improved TBV. In conclusion, E(2) deficiency is the dominant factor impairing bone loss in OVX and concomitant changes in FSH/LH levels achieved by decapeptyl have some modulating, though complex role in this setting. The role of high FSH levels in post-menopausal bone loss requires further investigation using combined sub-optimal doses of the different hormones.

The effects of estrogen receptors α- and ß-specific agonists and antagonists on cell proliferation and energy metabolism in human bone cell line.

In cultured human osteoblasts estradiol-17ß (E2) modulated DNA synthesis, the specific activity of creatine kinase BB (CK), 12 and 15 lipoxygenase (LO) mRNA expression and formation of 12- and 15-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (HETE). We now investigate the response of human bone cell line (SaOS2) to phytoestrogens and estrogen receptors (ER)-specific agonists and antagonists. Treatment of SaSO2 with E2, 2,3-bis (4-hydroxyphenyl)-propionitrile (DPN; ERß-specific agonist), 4,4',4″-[4-propyl-(1H)-pyrazol-1,3,5-triyl] tris-phenol (PPT; ERα-specific agonist), biochainin A (BA), daidzein (D), genistein (G) and raloxifene (Ral) showed increased DNA synthesis and CK. Ral inhibited completely all stimulations except DPN and to some extent D. The ERα-specific antagonist methyl-piperidino-pyrazole (MPP) and the ERß-specific antagonist 4-[2-phenyl-5,7-bis (tri-fluoro-methyl) pyrazolo [1,5-a]pyrimidin-3-yl] phenol (PTHPP) inhibited DNA synthesis, CK and reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation induced by estrogens according to their receptors affinity. The LO inhibitor baicaleine inhibited only E2, DPN and G's effects. E2 and Ral unlike all other compounds had no effect on ERα mRNA expression, while ERß mRNA expression was stimulated by all compounds. All compounds modulated the expression of 12LO and 15LO mRNA, except E2, PPT and Ral for 12LO, and 12- and 15-HETE productions and stimulated ROS formation which was inhibited by NADPH oxidase inhibitors diphenyleneiodonium chloride (DPI) and N-acetyl cysteine and the estrogen inhibitor ICI. DPI did not affect hormonal-induced DNA and CK. In conclusion, we provide evidence for the separation of mediation via ERα and ERß pathways in the effects of estrogenic compounds on osteoblasts, but the role of LO/HETE/ROS is unclear.

The effects of native and synthetic estrogenic compounds as well as vitamin D less-calcemic analogs on adipocytes content in rat bone marrow.

BACKGROUND: We demonstrated previously that phytoestrogens and vitamin D analogs like estradiol-17ß (E2) modulate bone morphology in rat female model. AIM: We now analyze the effects of phytoestrogens, E2, selective E2 re ceptor modulators, and the less-calcemic analogs of vitamin D: JKF1624F2-2 (JKF) or QW1624F2-2 (QW) on fat content in bone marrow (BM) from long bones in ovariectomized female rats (OVX). MATERIALS AND METHODS: OVX rats were injected with treatments known to affect bone formation, 5 days per week for 2.5 month for analysis of fat content in BM. RESULTS: In OVX young adults there is a decreased bone formation and a 10-fold increase in fat cells content in BM. Treatment with E2, raloxifene (Ral) or DT56a resulted in almost completely abolishment of fat cells content. Daidzein (D) decreased fat cells content by 80%, genistein (G) or biochainin A (BA) did not change fat cells content and carboxy BA (cBA) had a small but significant effect. JKF or QW did not affect fat cells content, whereas combined treatment of JKF or QW with E2 resulted in complete abolishment of fat cells content. These changes in fat cells content are inversely correlated with changes in bone formation. CONCLUSIONS: Our results demonstrate that adipogenesis induced by OVX is a reversible process which can be corrected by hormonal treatments. The awareness of a relationship between fat and bone at the marrow level might provide a better understanding of the pathophysiology of bone loss as well as a novel approach to diagnosis and treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis.

The effects of peptides with estrogen-like activity on cell proliferation and energy metabolism in human derived vascular smooth muscle cells.

Hormone replacement therapy (HRT) for post-menopausal symptoms in diabetes is associated with increased risk of coronary heart disease and stroke. Therefore, there is a need for new HRT with no adverse effects on diabetic post-menopausal women. We developed peptides as potential estrogen mimetic compounds and now we evaluated the effects of the most efficacious peptide; hexapeptide estrogen-mimetic peptide 1 (EMP-1) (VSWFFE) in comparison to estrogen (E(2)) and peptides with weak activity A44 (KAWFFE) and A45 (KRAFFE) on modulation of cell proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC) growing in normal (ng) or high glucose (hg) concentrations. In ng EMP-1-like E(2) inhibited cell proliferation at high concentration, and stimulated at low concentration. EMP-1 did not affect E(2) stimulation of DNA, but inhibited E(2) inhibition of cell proliferation at high concentration. All effects by the combination of EMP-1 and E(2) were abolished at hg. A44-stimulated cell proliferation at all concentrations and A45 had no effect. When A44 was co-incubated with E(2) at both concentrations, DNA synthesis was stimulated, but abolished at hg. A45 abolished E(2) stimulation and inhibition of cell proliferation at both glucose concentrations. All peptides tested except A45-stimulated CK-specific activity at both glucose concentrations. In hg A44 stimulation of DNA was unaffected as well as its inhibition by EMP-1. EMP-1 and A44 similar to E(2)-stimulated MAPK activity in ng or hg, suggesting similar mechanism of action. The results presented here suggest that EMP-1 provided it acts similarly in vivo can replace E(2) for treatment of post-menopausal women in hyperglycemia due to diabetes.

Daidzein but not other phytoestrogens preserves bone architecture in ovariectomized female rats in vivo.

Ovariectomy of immature female rats, results in significant decrease of trabecular bone volume and in cortical bone thickness. Previously, we found that estradiol-17beta (E(2)) restored bone structure of ovariectomized (Ovx) female rats to values obtained in intact sham-operated female rats. E(2) also selectively stimulated creatine kinase (CK) specific activity a hormonal-genomic activity marker. In the present study, we compared the effects of E(2) and the phytoestrogens: daidzein (D), biochainin A (BA), genistein (G), carboxy-derivative of BA (cBA), and the SERM raloxifene (Ral) in Ovx, on both histological changes of bones and CK, when administered in multiple daily injections for 2.5 months. Bone from Ovx rats, showed significant disrupted architecture of the growth plate, with fewer proliferative cells and less chondroblasts. The metaphysis underneath the growth plate, contained less trabeculae but a significant increased number of adipocytes in the bone marrow. D like E(2) and Ral but not G, BA, or cBA, restored the morphology of the tibiae, similar to that of control sham-operated animals; the bony trabeculeae observed in the primary spongiosa was thicker, with almost no adipocytes in bone marrow. Ovariectomy resulted also in reduced CK, which in both epiphysis and diaphysis was stimulated by all estrogenic compounds tested. In summary, only D stimulated skeletal tissues growth and differentiation as effectively as E(2) or Ral, suggesting that under our experimental conditions, D is more effective in reversing menopausal changes than any of the other isolated phytoestrogens which cannot be considered as one entity.

Less-calcemic vitamin D analogs enhance creatine kinase specific activity and modulate responsiveness to gonadal steroids in rat skeletal tissues.

Vitamin D metabolites and analogs exert a variety of biological activities, such as regulation of cellular proliferation, differentiation and energy metabolism, exerted through the brain type isozyme of creatine kinase (CK) specific activity, serving to provide ATP generation. In the present study we assess the role of vitamin D in induction of CK in rat epiphyseal cartilage (Ep) and diaphyseal bone (Di). Skeletal tissues from female or male vitamin D-depleted rats showed lower CK than in vitamin D-replete rats in both Ep and Di. Moreover, estradiol-17beta (E2) or dihydrotestosterone (DHT), which increased CK in Ep and Di of intact female or male rats, respectively, stimulated CK in vitamin D-depleted rats to a much lower extent. Treatment of intact female rats for 1, 2 or 8 weeks with the less-calcemic vitamin D analogs JKF 1624F2-2 (JKF) or QW 1624F2-2 (QW) and the non-calcemic analog CB 1093 (CB), slightly affected CK, although there was an up-regulation of the E2- and DHT-induced CK response in Ep and Di from these rats. In intact female rats, all vitamin D analogs potentiated CK response to the SERM raloxifene (Ral) and tamoxifen (TAM) in these organs but the inhibitory effect of Ral or TAM on E2-induced CK was lost after this pre-treatment. CB induced a significant increase in estradiol receptor alpha (ERalpha) protein in both Ep and Di from intact female rats. Collectively, these results indicate that vitamin D analogs modulate CK in skeletal tissues and up-regulate its response and sensitivity to E2 and to SERM in these tissues, possibly via an increase in ERalpha protein. These results corroborate our previous studies in human bone cells, and further suggest that the vitamin D system plays an important physiological role in maintaining normal cell energy reservoir in the skeleton.

A permanently charged tamoxifen derivative displays anticancer activity and improved tissue selectivity in rodents.

A quaternized form of tamoxifen (TAM), tamoxifen methiodide (TMI), was shown to demonstrate very low brain uptake compared to TAM and, unexpectedly, was considerably less estrogenic than TAM in the uterus. The agonist activity of TMI in the bone was similar to that of TAM. TMI manifested significant dose-dependent tumoricidal activity with a rapid onset of action against MCF-7 human breast cancer implants in nude mice and a mean reduction in tumor size of 60% over six weeks.

Estrogenic and antiproliferative properties of glabridin from licorice in human breast cancer cells.

There is an increasing demand for natural compounds that improve women's health by mimicking the critical benefits of estrogen to the bones and the cardiovascular system but avoiding its deleterious effects on the breast and uterus. The estrogenic properties of glabridin, the major isoflavan in licorice root, were tested in view of the resemblance of its structure and lipophilicity to those of estradiol. The results indicate that glabridin is a phytoestrogen, binding to the human estrogen receptor and stimulating creatine kinase activity in rat uterus, epiphyseal cartilage, diaphyseal bone, aorta, and left ventricle of the heart. The stimulatory effects of 2.5-25 microg/animal glabridin were similar to those of 5 microg/animal estradiol. Chemical modification of glabridin showed that the position of the hydroxyl groups has a significant role in binding to the human estrogen receptor and in proliferation-inducing activity. Glabridin was found to be three to four times more active than 2'-O-methylglabridin and 4'-O-methylglabridin, and both derivatives were more active than 2',4'-O-methylglabridin. The effect of increasing concentrations of glabridin on the growth of breast tumor cells was biphasic. Glabridin showed an estrogen receptor-dependent, growth-promoting effect at low concentrations (10 nM-10 microM) and estrogen receptor-independent antiproliferative activity at concentrations of > 15 microM. This is the first study to indicate that isoflavans have estrogen-like activities. Glabridin and its derivatives exhibited varying degrees of estrogen receptor agonism in different tests and demonstrated growth-inhibitory actions on breast cancer cells.

Capacitative pulsed electric stimulation of bone cells. Induction of cyclic-AMP changes and DNA synthesis.

Pulsed electric stimulation, coupled capacitively to bone cells isolated from rat embryo calvaria, caused changes in the intracellular level of cyclic AMP and enhanced DNA synthesis. The capacitive method of electrical stimulation was characterized in terms of displacement currents (0.7-4.0 A) and voltages (10-54 V/cm) prevailing in the stimulation chamber. Changes, both in cyclic AMP and in incorporation of [3H]thymidine into DNA, were correlated with the strength of the applied electric field. Unlike the mechanical stimulation of bone cells, the electrical stimulus was not mediated by de novo synthesis of prostaglandins. The findings suggest that cyclic-AMP changes, induced by the capacitive electrical stimulation of bone cells, trigger DNA synthesis.

Parathyroid hormone induction of creatine kinase activity and DNA synthesis is mimicked by phospholipase C, diacylglycerol and phorbol ester.

Parathyroid hormone (PTH), which increases cAMP levels, also induces an increase in the activity of the brain isozyme of creatine kinase and in DNA synthesis in osteoblast-enriched bone cell cultures by a cAMP-independent mechanism. The following results lead us to the conclusion that PTH induction of brain isozyme of creatine kinase activity and DNA synthesis occurs by activation of membranal phospholipid metabolism leading to increased protein kinase C activity and Ca2+ mobilization, a mechanism demonstrated for several growth factors and other hormones. (1) Binding of membranal phospholipids by agents such as gentamycin or antiphospholipid antibodies abolishes the stimulation by PTH of creatine kinase activity and DNA synthesis but not of cAMP production. (2) Treatment of cell cultures with exogenous phospholipase C increases brain isozyme of creatine kinase activity and DNA synthesis, but not cAMP production; these stimulations are also blocked by serum containing anti-phospholipid antibodies. PTH has no additional effect on stimulation of creatine kinase activity by phospholipase C (and only a slight effect on DNA synthesis). (3) A synthetic diacylglycerol (1-oleyl-2-acetyl glycerol) or phorbol ester (phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate) or Ca2+ ionophore, A23187 induces creatine kinase activity and DNA synthesis in the cultures. However, this effect is not blocked by antiphospholipid sera and PTH has no additional effect. (4) Inhibition of protein kinase C activity by drugs reported to inhibit the enzyme (retinoic acid, quercetin) abolishes the stimulation of brain isozyme of creatine kinase activity and of DNA synthesis by PTH.

Stimulation of skeletal-derived cell cultures by different electric field intensities is cell-specific.

Pulsed electric stimulation, coupled capacitively to different cell cultures of skeletal origin, caused immediate changes in the cellular levels of cyclic AMP and a later enhanced DNA synthesis. Changes both in cyclic AMP level and DNA synthesis were correlated with the strength of the applied electric field. Cultures of calvaria bone cells which contain mainly two cell types, parathyroid hormone responsive cells (osteoblast-like) and prostaglandin E2 responsive cells (fibroblast-like), respond to both low (13 V/cm) and to high (54 V/cm) electric field strength, with no response at intermediate (24 V/cm) field strength. Rat epiphyseal cartilage responded like bone cells both to low and high field intensities, while rat condylar cartilage responded only to the intermediate field strength. Moreover, subcultures of calvaria bone cells, which lost their osteoblastic phenotype expression during subculturing, were responsive only to low field strength. On the other hand, osteoblast-enriched cultures, derived from calvaria bone grown in low calcium, were responsive only to the high field strength. These findings suggest that the response to various electric field intensities is cell-specific and might be used as an additional parameter to characterize cell types. Our study points to the possibility that when exposing a whole organ to an electrical stimulation it is possible to affect specifically only one cell population out of the many cell types existing in the organ.

Acute stimulation of creatine kinase activity by vitamin D metabolites in the developing cerebellum.

There is increasing evidence that vitamin D metabolites have a developmental function. We have investigated the influence of the vitamin D status on the activity of creatine kinase in the brain. Normally fed rats show an increase in the specific activity of cerebral and cerebellar creatine kinase during postnatal development. Vitamin-D-depleted rats failed to show this normal increase. Developing cerebellum, but not cerebrum, in both vitamin D-depleted rats and in normally fed animals, responded sequentially to a single injection of a vitamin D metabolite by displaying increased creatine kinase specific activity. In 5-25-day-old rats, 24R,25-dihydroxyvitamin D-3 significantly increased creatine kinase specific activity 24 h after injection. In contrast, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D-3 stimulated cerebellar creatine kinase activity from 20 days after birth. A similar pattern of sequential responsiveness to vitamin D metabolites, but at an earlier age, was shown in the cerebellum of the rabbit, which is a 'perinatal brain developer' compared to the rat, a 'postnatal brain developer'. Because of the difficulty in obtaining vitamin D-depleted rabbits, studies were carried out in normally fed animals. In these rabbits, 24R,25-dihydroxyvitamin D-3 stimulated cerebellar creatine kinase activity between 6 days before birth and 9 days after birth, while 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D-3 caused an increase in cerebellar creatine kinase specific activity from 8 days after birth. These developmental differences found in creatine kinase basal activity and responsiveness are correlated with differences in cellular growth rates, both in the rabbit and in the rat, suggesting that vitamin D metabolites may be required for optimal cerebellar development.

Membranal effects of phytoestrogens and carboxy derivatives of phytoestrogens on human vascular and bone cells: new insights based on studies with carboxy-biochanin A.

Estradiol-17beta (E2) and some phytoestrogens induce a biphasic effect on DNA synthesis in cultured human vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC), i.e., stimulation at low concentrations and inhibition at high concentrations. These compounds also increase the specific activity of creatine kinase (CK) as well as intracellular Ca2+ concentration in both VSMC and human female-derived cultured bone cells (OBs), and stimulate ERK1/2 phosphorylation in VSMC. At least some of these effects are exerted via membranal binding sites (mER), as would appear from observations that protein-bound, membrane impermeant estrogenic complexes can mimic the effect of E2 on DNA synthesis, intracellular Ca2+ concentration and MAPK, but not on CK activity. We now extend these studies by examining the effects of a novel carboxy-derivative of biochanin A, 6-carboxy-biochanin A (cBA) in VSMC and human osteoblasts in culture. cBA increased DNA synthesis in VSMC in a dose-dependent manner and was able to maintain this effect when linked to a cell membrane impermeable protein. In VSMC both cBA and estradiol, in their free or protein-bound forms induced a steep and immediate rise in intracellular calcium. Both the free and protein-bound conjugates of cBA and estradiol increased net MAPK-kinase activity. Neither the stimulatory effect of cBA nor the inhibitory effect of estradiol on DNA synthesis in VSMC could be shown in the presence of the MAPK-kinase inhibitor UO126. The presence of membrane binding sites for both estradiol and cBA was supported by direct visualization, using fluorescence labeling of their respective protein conjugates, E2-BSA and cBA-ovalbumin. Furthermore, these presumed membrane ER for estradiol and cBA were co-localized. In cultured human osteoblasts, cBA stimulated CK activity in a dose related fashion, which paralleled the increase in CK induced by estradiol per se, confirming the estrogenic properties of cBA in human bone cells. Both the free and protein-bound forms of cBA elicited immediate and substantial increments in intracellular Ca2+, similar to, but usually larger than the responses elicited by estradiol per se. cBA also increased ERalpha and suppressed ERbeta mRNA expression in human osteoblasts. Cultured human osteoblasts also harbor membrane binding sites for protein-bound form of cG, which are co-localized with the binding sites for protein-bound estradiol. The extent to which these properties of the novel synthetic phytoestrogen derivatives may be utilized to avert human vascular and/or bone disease requires further study.

Calciotrophic hormones and hyperglycemia modulate vitamin D receptor and 25 hydroxyy vitamin D 1-α hydroxylase mRNA expression in human vascular smooth muscle cells.

Estrogen receptors (ERα and ERß), the vitamin D receptor (VDR) and 25 hydroxyy vitamin D 1-α hydroxylase (1OHase) mRNA are expressed in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC). In these cells estrogenic hormones modulate cell proliferation as measured by DNA synthesis (DNA). In the present study we determined whether or not the calciotrophic hormones PTH 1-34 (PTH) and less- calcemic vitamin D analog QW as well as hyperglycemia can regulate DNA synthesis and CK. E2 had a bimodal effect on VSMC DNA synthesis, such that proliferation was inhibited at 30nM but stimulated at 0.3nM. PTH at 50nM increased, whereas QW at 10nM inhibited DNA synthesis. Hyperglycemia inhibited the effects on high E2, QW and PTH on DNA only. Both QW and PTH increased ERα mRNA expression, but only PTH increased ERß expression. Likewise, both PTH and QW stimulated VDR and 1OHase expression and activity. ERß, VDR and 1OHase expression and activity were inhibited by hyperglycemia, but ERα expression was unaffected by hyperglycemia. In conclusion, calcitrophic hormones modify VSMC growth and concomitantly affect ER expression in these cells as well as the endogenous VSMC vitamin D system elements, including VDR and 1OHase. Some of the later changes may likely participate in growth effects. Of importance in the observation is that several regulatory effects are deranged in the presence of hyperglycemia, particularly the PTH- and vitamin D-dependent up regulation of VDR and 1OHase in these cells. The implications of these effects require further studies. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled '17th Vitamin D Workshop'.

The hormonal milieu in early stages of bone cell differentiation modifies the subsequent sex-specific responsiveness of the developing bone to gonadal steroids.

We have established previously that rat bone tissue, as well as rat and human-derived bone cells in culture, show a sex-specific response to gonadal steroids in stimulation of the specific activity of the BB isozyme of creatine kinase (CK) and DNA synthesis. This response could be modified by manipulation of the endocrine environment during early stages in rat development. To further examine the influence of changing hormonal steroid milieu and vitamin D status on the action of gonadal steroids in developing bone tissue, we used two models of ectopic bone formation: demineralized tooth matrix (DTM) implanted under the skin, and femoral bone marrow (BM) transplanted under the kidney capsule of a syngeneic recipient mouse. The response to gonadal steroids in ossicles developed from implanted DTM depended on the recipient's gender; injection of estradiol 17beta (E2; 5 microg) into young female mice 21 days after DTM implantation increased, 24 h later, CK activity in the newly formed ossicles by approximately 60%, whereas injection of dihydrotestosterone (DHT; 50 microg) had no effect on CK activity. In contrast, in male mice, DHT but not E2 increased CK activity in the ossicles by approximately 50%. This sex-specific response was abolished in gonadectomized mice resulting in a similar response of the ossicles to both E2 and DHT. When DTM was implanted into vitamin D- deficient female mice, there was a lower basal CK activity and a significantly diminished response to E2 in the newly formed bone tissues. When BM, which contains mesenchymal and stromal cells and committed osteoprogenitor cells, was transplanted into 6-week-old intact or gonadectomized female or male mice, the response of the newly formed bone ossicles, 21 days after transplantation, to E2 or to DHT was according to the gender of the donor. Bone formed from BM obtained from female mice responded to E2 only and those formed from male BM responded to DHT only. Ossicles developed from BM obtained from gonadectomized mice showed lack of response to either gonadal steroid. Furthermore, only approximately 25% of the BM transplants obtained from castrated (CAST) male donors developed into ossicles. Ossicles formed from BM obtained from vitamin D-deficient female donors showed lack of response to gonadal steroids. These findings suggest that the manipulation of the hormonal milieu in early stages of the differentiation sequence of bone cells modifies the subsequent selective responsiveness of the developing bone tissue to gonadal steroids.

24,25-Dihydroxycholecalciferol induces the growth of chick cartilage in vitro.

Recent studies have indicated that 24R,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol [24R,25(OH)2D3] induces development of endochondral bone. It binds specifically to cytoplasmic and nuclear receptors in epiphyseal cartilage cells. In the present investigation we report the effects of 24R,25(OH)2D3 in comparison to other active vitamin-D metabolites on cell growth. This study was performed on micro-mass cell cultures which were prepared from 4.5-day-old embryonic chick skeletal mesenchyme: this culture consists of a high proportion of chondrocytes. Twelve nM 24R,25(OH)2D3 induces a 2-fold increase in [3H] thymidine incorporation into DNA after 24 h of treatment. Other metabolites, either at this or higher concentrations, had no significant effect. [3H]-leucine incorporation into protein and ornithine decarboxylase (ODC) activity were also enhanced only by 24R,25(OH)2D3 at 12 nM (2.4- and 2.0-fold, respectively). These results present supporting evidence for the specific role of 24R,25 (OH)2D3 in the growth and differentiation of developing cartilage cells.

Age dependence and modulation by gonadectomy of the sex-specific response of rat diaphyseal bone to gonadal steroids.

We have previously reported that diaphyseal bone of prepubertal rats responds in a sex-specific manner to gonadal steroids, 24 h after steroid injection, by increases in creatine kinase (CK) specific activity and the rate of DNA synthesis. We have also shown that hormonal intervention abolished the sex-specific response of diaphyseal bone to sex steroids. In the present study, we examined the responsiveness of diaphyseal bone and cartilage to gonadal steroids in male and female Wistar-derived rats at ages between 5 days and 1 yr. In both diaphyseal bone and cartilage of untreated control rats, a peripubertal peak of CK specific activity was seen, which was more pronounced in females. Diaphyseal bone, unlike epiphyseal cartilage, responded specifically to a single injection of 17 beta-estradiol (E2; 5 micrograms/rat) in females and to 5 alpha-dihydrotestosterone (DHT; 50 micrograms/rat) in males. The highest response occurred peripubertally, but was skewed toward prepubertal ages in males and postpubertal ages in females. To study the effect of gonadectomy on this sex-specific response of diaphyseal bone, rats were gonadectomized at the age of 24 or 180 days and from 4 days to 4 weeks thereafter were challenged with either E2 or DHT. Diaphyseal bones of gonadectomized rats of either sex responded to both E2 and DHT, beginning 7 days after surgery. Thus, in gonadectomized rats, there was a loss of the sex specificity of response to steroid hormones, which could be restored by replenishment, by five daily injections, of the characteristic hormone of each sex. In the epiphyseal cartilage, the same replenishment schedule resulted in acquisition of a sex-specific response in both sexes, not seen previously. These data in conjunction with the previously reported hormonal modulation of sex-specific responses, are consistent with a developmental acquisition of diaphyseal sex steroid specificity that requires for its maintenance the presence of appropriate amounts of the characteristic gonadal steroid in each sex.

Stimulation of creatine kinase activity in rat organs by human growth hormone in vivo and in vitro.

Intraperitoneal injection of human GH (hGH) (4 micrograms/g BW) into 21-day-old rats causes, 24 h later, an increase in creatine kinase (CK) specific activity in kidney (1.7-fold), liver (1.6-fold), and in epiphyseal cartilage (1.8-fold). Similar stimulation was obtained when tissue explants were incubated for 24 h with hGH (1 microgram/ml); CK activity rose 1.8-fold in kidney, 1.9-fold in the liver, and 2.6-fold in epiphyseal cartilage. Highly significant stimulation of CK specific activity was obtained in these same organs in hypophysectomized rats. The increase in CK specific activity in the kidney, to some extent in the liver, but not in the epiphyseal cartilage, was also obtained on in vivo treatment with either human placental lactogen or ovine PRL. Stimulation of CK in these three organs by hGH is followed by a parallel increase in DNA synthesis. Dexamethasone, which was also found to increase CK activity in rat kidney and liver, did not affect the increase of CK by hGH in the kidney, stimulated the effect of hGH in the liver, and partially inhibited the effect of hGH in the epiphyseal cartilage. Diethylaminoethyl cellulose chromatography revealed that the basal and induced activity of CK in all cases was due to the brain type isozyme. On the basis of this evidence for a direct effect of hGH on CK brain type activity, we suggest that its stimulation is potentially a convenient and sensitive assay for biological activity of GH.

Modulation by vitamin D status of the responsiveness of rat bone to gonadal steroids.

We have previously demonstrated that gonadal steroids stimulate [3H]thymidine incorporation and creatine kinase specific activity in skeletal tissues. In the present study we report that in 20-day-old vitamin D-deficient Wistar-derived rats, 17 beta-estradiol (E2; 5 micrograms/rat) or testosterone (50 micrograms/rat) failed to stimulate [3H]thymidine incorporation into diaphyses of long bones and that the response to these hormones in terms of increased creatine kinase specific activity was less than half the value in normally fed rats. Two daily ip injections of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 [1,25-(OH)2D3; 0.5 ng/g BW], but not 24,25-(OH)2D3 (5 ng/g BW), partially restored the biological responses to E2 in bone of 21-day-old vitamin D-deficient female rats. Vitamin D deficiency did not impair the responsiveness to gonadal steroids in the epiphysis of long bones, uterus, or prostate, in contrast to its effect on diaphysis. In 21-day-old normally fed female rats, neither vitamin D metabolite enhanced the response to E2. When cultures of rat epiphyseal cells were treated daily for 5 days with either 1,25-(OH)2D3 (1 nM) or 24,25-(OH)2D3 (10 nM), followed by E2 (30 nM) for 24 h, creatine kinase activity was significantly higher than in cultures treated daily for 5 days with vehicle alone, and then with E2. The same treatment of rat embryo calvaria bone cells showed that 1,25-(OH)2D3, but not 24,25-(OH)2D3, significantly increased the creatine kinase activity response to E2. These findings suggest that vitamin D metabolites selectively affect the biological responses of skeletal tissues to gonadal steroids.