Characterization of insecticidal Cry1Cb2 protein from Bacillus thuringiensis toxic to Myzus persicae (Sulzer).

The toxins produced by Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) are well known for their insecticidal activity against Lepidoptera, Diptera and Coleoptera; however, the sap-sucking insects (Hemiptera) are not particularly susceptible to Bt toxins. We describe the aphicidal effect of Cry toxin from Bt strain GP919 against one of the most pernicious hemipterans in the agricultural environment, Myzus persicae. The mortality bioassay shows that the strain cause mortality rates above 80% at concentration of 10 ng/µl with a LC50 of 9.01 ng/µl; whereas it showed no lethal toxicity against the lepidopteran Spodoptera frugiperda. The mayor protein (∼130 kDa) expressed by this strain was subjected to purification, solubilization and trypsin digestion, the band of âˆ¼ 65 kDa which was obtained from trypsin digestion was purified by ion-exchange chromatography and was used to feed the aphid. The bioassay shows mortality rates above 85% at concentration of 10 ng/µl and the LC50 was 6.58 ng/µl. The resulting fragment from the digestion was identified by mass spectrometry and the candidate protein showed an overall 100% amino acid sequence identity to the reported Cry1Cb2 (WP 033698561.1) protein from Bt. Koch's postulated also was carried out with the GP919 strain and also, we document the signs of infection caused by this strain. This is the first report of a Cry1Cb2 protein that is toxic to a sucking insect and this protein may become a promising environmentally friendly tool for the control of M. persicae and possible also for other sap sucking insect pests.

Effect of B-NIPOx in Experimental Trypanosoma cruzi Infection in Mice.

Chagas disease is caused by Trypanosoma cruzi and represents a major public health problem, which is endemic in Latin America and emerging in the rest of the world. The two drugs that are currently available for its treatment, Benznidazole and Nifurtimox, are partially effective in the chronic phase of the disease. In this study, we designed and synthesized the benzyl ester of N-isopropyl oxamic acid (B-NIPOx), which is a non-polar molecule that crosses cell membranes. B-NIPOx is cleaved inside the parasite by carboxylesterases, releasing benzyl alcohol (a molecule with antimicrobial activity), and NIPOx, which is an inhibitor of α-hydroxy acid dehydrogenase isozyme II (HADH-II), a key enzyme in T. cruzi metabolism. We evaluated B-NIPOx cytotoxicity, its toxicity in mice, and its inhibitory activity on purified HADH-II and on T. cruzi homogenates. We then evaluated the trypanocidal activity of B-NIPOx in vitro and in vivo and its effect in the intestine of T. cruzi-infected mice. We found that B-NIPOx had higher trypanocidal activity on epimastigotes and trypomastigotes than Benznidazole and Nifurtimox, that it was more effective to reduce blood parasitemia and amastigote nests in infected mice, and that, in contrast to the reference drugs, it prevented the development of Chagasic enteropathy.

Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease diagnosed by transient elastography and liver biopsy.

BACKGROUND: We aimed to determine if there was a higher incidence of small intestinal bacterial overgrowth (SIBO) in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) than in patients without NAFLD. Moreover, we assessed whether patients with significant fibrosis (SF) had a higher incidence of SIBO compared with patients with non-significant or no liver fibrosis. METHODS: NAFLD was diagnosed in 117 patients by using Fibroscan with a controlled attenuation parameter (CAP) as well as liver biopsy (LB). SIBO was defined by esophagogastroduodenoscopy with an aspiration of the descending duodenum. RESULTS: Patients with non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) and those with SF on LB had a significantly higher incidence of SIBO than patients without NASH and those without SF, respectively (P < .05). According to histological characteristics, there was a higher proportion of patients in the SIBO group with higher steatosis and fibrosis grade, lobular and portal inflammation, and ballooning grade (P < .001). In multivariate analysis, significant predictors associated with SF and NASH were type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and SIBO. Moreover, in multivariate analysis, significant predictors that were independently associated with SIBO were T2DM, fibrosis stage and ballooning grade (OR 8.80 (2.07-37.37), 2.50 (1.16-5.37) and 27.6 (6.41-119), respectively). The most commonly isolated were gram-negative bacteria, predominantly Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae. CONCLUSION: In this relatively large population of patients, we used a gold standard for both SIBO (quantitative culture of duodenum's descending part aspirate) and NAFLD (LB), and we demonstrated that NASH patients and those with SF had a higher incidence of SIBO. Moreover, significant predictors independently associated with SIBO were T2DM, fibrosis stage and ballooning grade. Although TE is a well-investigated method for steatosis and fibrosis detection, in our study, independent predictors of SIBO were histological characteristics of NAFLD, while elastographic parameters did not reach statistical significance.

Oscheius myriophila (Nematoda: Rhabditida) isolated in sugar cane soils in Mexico with potential to be used as entomopathogenic nematode.

A survey of entomopathogenic nematodes was conducted in sugar cane crops in a total of 14 soils, and positive results were obtained for strain MC5-2014 in the municipality of Tepalcingo, Morelos, in soil with a sandy loam texture and a pH of 6.4. Species determination was performed via morphological and morphometric techniques by searching for a tubular stoma with a swollen cylindrical pharyngeal body and a metacorpus in the basal part. The range of body length (L) was 750 to 1200 µm in females and 720 to 910 µm in males, while the corresponding maximum widths (W) of the body were 30 to 60 µm and 20 to 30 µm, respectively. Males exhibited bursa with a 1 + 1 + 3 + 3 distribution of papillae, and females exhibited a vulva located at the mid-body. For molecular identification, the ITS region of ribosomal DNA was used. Virulence tests (LC50) were conducted with Galleria mellonella, and a value of 4.732 was obtained for infective juveniles (IJs). Taking taxonomic and molecular characteristics into account, the isolate was determined to be Oscheius myriophila. The isolation of this strain represents the first geographic report of O. myriophila in Mexico, and it should be noted that the cultivation of sugar cane occurs with constant application of insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, and fertilizers as well as harvesting activities such as burning of the crop for harvest. The O. myriophila isolate has the potential to be used in the future as a method of biological control in our country.A survey of entomopathogenic nematodes was conducted in sugar cane crops in a total of 14 soils, and positive results were obtained for strain MC5-2014 in the municipality of Tepalcingo, Morelos, in soil with a sandy loam texture and a pH of 6.4. Species determination was performed via morphological and morphometric techniques by searching for a tubular stoma with a swollen cylindrical pharyngeal body and a metacorpus in the basal part. The range of body length (L) was 750 to 1200 µm in females and 720 to 910 µm in males, while the corresponding maximum widths (W) of the body were 30 to 60 µm and 20 to 30 µm, respectively. Males exhibited bursa with a 1 + 1 + 3 + 3 distribution of papillae, and females exhibited a vulva located at the mid-body. For molecular identification, the ITS region of ribosomal DNA was used. Virulence tests (LC50) were conducted with Galleria mellonella, and a value of 4.732 was obtained for infective juveniles (IJs). Taking taxonomic and molecular characteristics into account, the isolate was determined to be Oscheius myriophila. The isolation of this strain represents the first geographic report of O. myriophila in Mexico, and it should be noted that the cultivation of sugar cane occurs with constant application of insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, and fertilizers as well as harvesting activities such as burning of the crop for harvest. The O. myriophila isolate has the potential to be used in the future as a method of biological control in our country.

"Selfie"-related electrocution.

Electrical injuries contribute a small but significant fraction to all burn trauma cases, and an even smaller proportion to those that are lethal. Accidental death rates among teenagers are the highest of all age-groups, and taking a "selfie" has been a practice that has, on rare occasions, led to such a death, often from electrocution. The case of a young man and his friend, who were electrocuted after climbing onto the roof of a parked railway wagon to take selfies is reported. One died at the scene, while the other survived. This case demonstrates that electrocution may occur with parked railway wagons, and in the young may be associated with selfie taking.

Antibacterial activity and phospholipid recognition of the recombinant defensin J1-1 from Capsicum genus.

The gene of the four disulfide-bridged defensin J1-1 from Capsicum was cloned into the expression vector pQE30 containing a 6His-tag as fusion protein. This construct was transfected into Origami strain of Escherichia coli and expressed after induction with isopropyl thiogalactoside (IPTG). The level of expression was 4 mg/L of culture medium, and the His-tagged recombinant defensin (HisXarJ1-1) was expressed exclusively into inclusion bodies. After solubilization, HisXarJ1-1 was purified by affinity and hydrophobic interaction chromatography. The reverse-phase HPLC profile of the HisXarJ1-1 product obtained from the affinity chromatography step showed single main peptide fraction of molecular masses of 7050.6 Da and after treatment with DTT a single fraction of 7, 042.6 Da corresponding to the reduced peptide was observed. An in vitro folding step of the HisXarJ1-1 generated a distinct profile of oxidized forms of the peptide this oxidized peptide was capable of binding phosphatidic acid in vitro. Possible dimer and oligomer of HisXarJ1-1 were visible in gel electrophoresis and immunodetected with anti-His antibodies. Pure recombinant defensin HisXarJ1-1 exhibited antibacterial activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

Effects of Bacillus thuringiensis strains virulent to Varroa destructor on larvae and adults of Apis mellifera.

The sublethal effects of two strains of Bacillus thuringiensis, which were virulent in vitro to Varroa destructor, were measured on Apis mellifera. The effects of five concentrations of total protein (1, 5, 25, 50 and 100µg/mL) from the EA3 and EA26.1 strains on larval and adult honey bees were evaluated for two and seven days under laboratory conditions. Based on the concentrations evaluated, total protein from the two strains did not affect the development of larvae, the syrup consumption, locomotor activity or proboscis extension response of adults. These same parameters were also tested for the effects of three concentrations (1, 10 and 15µg/kg) of cypermethrin as a positive control. Although no significant differences were observed after two days of treatment with cypermethrin, a dose-response relationship in syrup consumption and locomotor activity was observed. A significant reduction in the proboscis extension response of the bees treated with cypermethrin was also observed. Therefore, in contrast to cypermethrin, our results indicate that the EA3 and EA26.1 strains of B. thuringiensis can be used in beehives to control V. destructor and reduce the negative effects of this mite on colonies without adverse effects on the larvae and adults of A. mellifera. Additionally, the overuse of synthetic miticides, which produce both lethal and sublethal effects on bees, can be reduced.

Putative hormone with anti-obesogenic and insulin-sensitizing effect.

It was confirmed that bone morphogenetic protein-9 (BMP-9), like insulin, improves glycemia in diabetic mice and regulates glucose metabolism in hepatocytes, which is why it is proposed as a candidate for the hepatic insulin-sensitizing substance (HISS). Regarding the fact that BMP-9 has a signaling pathway similar to other BMPs as well as insulin, it is expected that BMP-9 would also have certain effects on the liver. In our 2011 hypothesis, we aimed towards BMP-9 as a possible "hepatic insulin-sensitizing substance" (HISS) and in this article, we provide further evidence, derived from existing studies, suggesting that this putative hormone might in fact be none other than BMP-9.

ESTABLISHMENT OF ECHOCARDIOGRAPHIC PARAMETERS OF CLINICALLY HEALTHY FLORIDA MANATEES (TRICHECHUS MANATUS LATIROSTRIS).

A standardized echocardiographic technique was recently established for the Florida manatee (Trichechus manatus latirostris). There are no available published data on normal echocardiographic parameters in any Sirenian species. The purpose of this study was to report reference parameters for various echocardiographic measurements. These parameters are intended to serve as a comparison for future research into the prevalence of cardiac diseases in the manatee and to aid in diagnosing animals with suspected cardiac disease in rehabilitation facilities. Annual health assessments of free-ranging manatees in Crystal River National Wildlife Refuge, Florida, and pre-release health assessments of rehabilitated manatees at Tampa's Lowry Park Zoo permitted comparison of echocardiographic measurements in adult (n=14), subadult (n=7), and calf (n=8) animals under manual restraint.

Ocular Surface Fluid: More than a Matrix.

Although the eye can be subjected to therapeutic manipulation, some of its structures are highly inaccessible. Thus, conventional therapeutic administration pathways, such as topical or systemic routes, usually show significant limitations in the form of low ocular penetration or the appearance of side effects linked to physiology, among others. The critical feature of many xenobiotics is the drug gradient from the concentrated tear reservoir to the relatively barren corneal and conjunctival epithelia, which forces a passive route of absorption. The same is true in the opposite direction, towards the ocular surface (OS). With the premise that tears can be regarded as equivalent to or a substitute for plasma, researchers may determine drug concentrations in the OS fluid. Within this framework, a survey of scholarly sources on the topic was conducted. It provided an overview of current knowledge, allowing the identification of relevant theories, methods, and gaps in the existing research that can be employed in subsequent research. OS fluid (tears particularly) has enormous potential as a source of biological material for external drug screening and as a biomarker of various systemic diseases. Given the numerous alternate matrices, knowledge of their properties is very important in selecting the most appropriate specimens in toxicological analyses.

Ingestion of Fluids of the Ocular Surface Containing Eye Drops of Imidazole Derivatives-Alpha Adrenergic Receptor Agonists as Paragons.

Accidental poisonings by ingesting conjunctival fluid mixed with eye drops commonly involve alpha-2 adrenergic receptor agonists and tetrahydrozoline. These substances are recognized in commonly reported ingestions. Victims of all ages, otherwise in good health, often present as pale and lethargic to the emergency department (ED) after unintentionally ingesting topical eye medication. While eye drop poisoning cases in childhood include accidents during the play and poisonings in adults mean either suicide attempts or side effects caused by the systemic absorption of the substance, fluid of the ocular surface is a risk to all age groups. With this in mind, this study aimed to summarize data in the literature on tetrahydrozoline and alpha-2 adrenergic receptor agonists as dangerous medications, even when administered in low-bioavailability forms, such as eye drops. With this aim, a Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA)-compliant systematic review of relevant studies was conducted. A search of PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and EBSCOhost yielded nine studies that met the rigorous inclusion criteria. The primary studies were subject to a meta-analysis once a quality appraisal of the studies and a narrative synthesis of the extracted data had been conducted. The author hopes that this information will provide observations that will lead to better designs for over-the-counter eye drops, off-label drug usage policies, and parental attention.

Quetiapine-Related Deaths: In Search of a Surrogate Endpoint.

Quetiapine is a second-generation antipsychotic drug available for two and half decades. Due to increased misuse, prescription outside the approved indications, and availability on the black market, it is being encountered in medicolegal autopsies more frequently. For instance, it has been linked to increased mortality rates, most likely due to its adverse effects on the cardiovascular system. Its pharmacokinetic features and significant postmortem redistribution challenge traditional sampling in forensic toxicology. Therefore, a systematic literature review was performed, inclusive of PubMed, the Web of Science-core collection, and the Scopus databases; articles were screened for the terms "quetiapine", "death", and "autopsy" to reevaluate each matrix used as a surrogate endpoint in the forensic toxicology of quetiapine-related deaths. Ultimately, this review considers the results of five studies that were well presented (more than two matrices, data available for all analyses, for instance). The highest quetiapine concentrations were usually measured in the liver tissue. As interpreted by their authors, the results of the considered studies showed a strong correlation between some matrices, but, unfortunately, the studies presented models with poor goodness of fit. The distribution of quetiapine in distinct body compartments/tissues showed no statistically significant relationship with the length of the postmortem interval. Furthermore, this study did not confirm the anecdotal correlation of peripheral blood concentrations with skeletal muscle concentrations. Otherwise, there was no consistency regarding selecting an endpoint for analysis.

Fentanyl and Sudden Death-A Postmortem Perspective for Diagnosing and Predicting Risk.

Sudden, unexpected deaths are extremely difficult for families, especially when the victim is a child. Most sudden deaths occur due to cardiovascular issues, and a smaller number (approximately one-quarter) are attributed to other causes, such as epilepsy. The medicinal and non-medicinal use of the synthetic opioid fentanyl, which can cause breathing problems, is frequently involved in these deaths. It is also being found more often in autopsies of sudden death cases, and the number of overdose deaths from illicit drugs containing fentanyl is increasing. There are cases in which it is mixed with other drugs. A gene known as the KCNH2 gene or human ether-a-go-go-related gene (hERG), involved in the heart's electrical activity, can be related to abnormal heart rhythms. This gene, along with others, may play a role in sudden deaths related to fentanyl use. In response, we have examined the scientific literature on genetic variations in the KCNH2 gene that can cause sudden death, the impact of fentanyl on this process, and the potential benefits of genetic testing for the victims to offer genetic counseling for their family members.

Corneal Biomechanics and Other Factors Associated with Postoperative Astigmatism after Cataract Surgery.

This study aimed to investigate the impact of the cornea's biomechanical properties, corneal hysteresis (CH), and corneal resistance factor (CRF) on postoperative astigmatism after cataract surgery and determine the other factors that influence it. Forty eyes of 40 patients (13M/27F; the median age of 74) were included in this prospective study, underwent 2.75 mm incision cataract surgery, and were followed for 30 days. Visits were scheduled at baseline before surgery (V0), the 1st (V1), the 7th (V2), and the 30th (V3) postoperative days. The main parameters estimated and analyzed with Statistica® 14.0.1 were CH, CRF, astigmatism diopter, and axis. Following the cataract surgery, the CH did not significantly change during the study visits (p = 0.109). However, there was a significant change in the CRF from baseline during the study visits (per protocol set) (p = 0.002). After a slight but insignificant increase from V0 to V1, post hoc analysis found a significant decrease in the mean CRF from V1 to V2 (p = 0.049) with no substantial change from V2 to V3. According to the post hoc analysis, the median astigmatism diopter increased significantly only from V0 to V1 (p = 0.001) and slightly but not significantly decreased to the end of the study with the achievement of a near-baseline value. The main predictors for the final astigmatism diopter (R2 = 0.898) obtained by stepwise regression analysis were its values at V0, V1, and V2 (p < 0.001). The CRF at V1 was marginally significant, with a negative parameter estimate of -0.098303 (p = 0.0623). In conclusion, there was no correlation between preoperative CH and CRF and postoperative astigmatism using 2.75 mm incision cataract surgery. However, the final astigmatism diopter's main predictors were its baseline values before cataract surgery, the first, and the seventh postoperative days.

Echocardiographic evaluation of clinically healthy Florida manatees (Trichechus manatus latirostris).

Antemortem studies pertaining to the manatee cardiovascular and cardiopulmonary systems are limited despite reports of cardiac disease in postmortem specimens. The objective of this project was to develop a technique for echocardiography in the Florida manatee (Trichechus manatus latirostris). Because of their unique anatomy, a ventral approach was employed by use of an echocardiography table designed specifically for this study. Fourteen clinically healthy, free-ranging and captive Florida manatees underwent echocardiography between the fall of 2011 and winter of 2012. Eight females and six males of various age categories were included in the study. Clear visualization of all valves and chambers was accomplished, and length and width measurements of the left atrium, peak aortic flow velocity, and ejection fraction percentage were calculated in most animals. Abnormalities observed during the study included atrioventricular regurgitation and severe right-atrial enlargement. Based on the results of this study, echocardiography in the Florida manatee is possible, which has both clinical and research implications in larger epidemiologic studies evaluating diseases of the cardiopulmonary and cardiovascular systems.

In Vivo Production, Development and Storage of Oscheius myriophila (Nematoda: Rhabditida) in Galleria mellonella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae).

Entomopathogenic nematodes have been used in biological control for some time and are an alternative for the control of insect pests, but during their implementation, situations have arisen that can be improved. These vary with each species and include their production and storage. Oscheius myriophila, an entomopathogenic nematode (EPN), was monitored for its performance when produced in vivo, as well as its development using Galleria mellonella larvae, using the MC5-2014 strain isolated from soil samples in the municipality of Tepalcingo, Morelos, México. For a study with native strains of EPNs, a wide range of tests must be conducted because the required conditions can be very specific. In vivo production was quantified at initial infective juvenile (IJ) inocula of 50, 100 and 500, and we obtained the same production for the three inocula. The life cycle of the EPNs lasted 12 days, and two generations were observed in which adults were found at days 5 and 9. Both evaluations were performed at a temperature of 27 °C in G. mellonella larvae. In addition, the temperatures of 8, 12, 20 and 24 °C were evaluated for their storage, and we observed that the EPNs can be kept for at least 6 months, maintaining a survival rate of 58.67% and a good infective capacity at a temperature of 12 °C, remaining above 60%.

Identification and Venom Characterization of Two Scorpions from the State of Chihuahua Mexico: Chihuahuanus coahuliae and Chihuahuanus crassimannus.

Chihuahua is the largest state in Mexico. The ecosystem of this region is composed of large area of bushes, forests, and grasslands, which allows for a specific diversity of fauna; among them are interesting species of non-lethal scorpions. Most of the Chihuahuan scorpions have been previously morphologically and molecularly described; however, this manuscript could be the first to describe the composition of those venoms. This work aimed at the collection of two scorpion species from the region of Jiménez (Southwest of the State of Chihuahua), which belong to the species Chihuahuanus cohauilae and Chihuahuanus crassimanus; the two species were taxonomically and molecularly identified using a 16S DNA marker. Reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) of C. coahuilae and C. crassimanus venoms allowed the identification of three fractions lethal to mice. Additionally, three fractions of each scorpion displayed an effect on house crickets. In the end, three new fractions from the venom of C. coahuilae were positive for antimicrobial activity, although none from C. crassimanus venom displayed growth inhibition. Despite being a preliminary study, the venom biochemical analysis of these two uncharacterized scorpion species opens the opportunity to find new molecules with potential applications in the biomedical and biotechnological fields.

Homicide-suicide events in Southwestern Croatia, 1986-2009.

The aim of this study was to investigate the occurrence and characteristics of homicide-suicide events in Southwestern Croatia from 1986-2009 relying on autopsy reports of the Department of Forensic Medicine and Criminalistics, Rijeka and police records. A total of 17 cases involving 19 victims were identified. The perpetrators were most often men (82%), living in a spousal relationship with the victim. In 76.5% cases, suicide was committed immediately after homicide, and the same mean (most often an illegal firearm) was used for both. After examining the belongings of those involved in homicide-suicides, two factors differentiated our study from others, i.e. more victims and perpetrators were from the lower socioeconomic class and explosives were used in two homicide-suicide (12%) cases. The greater frequency of explosive used in homicide-suicide events may be a result of factors associated with the recent war fought in Croatia. These data prove the influence of sociological, historical and also political factors on the characteristics of a rare event such as homicide-suicide.

Significance of mini radial endoscope ultrasound (MREUS) in diagnosis and therapy of colorectal neoplasia.

In the pursuit to advance diagnostic procedures with colon carcinoma patients, we included the 15 MHz mini radial endoscopic ultrasound (MREUS) in our work up algorithm, following PH verification. When compared to surgical and final pathohistological (PH) findings, MREUS shows that it can differentiate colon layers in great detail and therefore we can determine the degree of carcinoma dissemination (T1, T2, T3, T4) as well as to make a correct therapeutic choice. MREUS (12-15-20 MHz) is a highly reliable colon layer structural analysis method. As we have shown in our study, the accuracy of T stage colon carcinoma visualization in correlation to equivalent PH studies varies from 90-100% which makes MREUS the best as well as the most reliable method in determining preoperative T stage colon carcinoma.

Liposomes Bearing Non-Bilayer Phospholipid Arrangements Induce Specific IgG Anti-Lipid Antibodies by Activating NK1.1+, CD4+ T Cells in Mice.

Liposomes are artificial models of cellular membranes that are used as delivery systems for genes, drugs and protein antigens. We have previously used them to study the antigenic properties of their phospholipids. Here, we used them to induce the production of IgG anti-non-bilayer phospholipid arrangements (NPAs) antibodies in mice; these antibodies cause cell lysis and trigger a lupus-like disease in mice. We studied the mechanisms that lead to the production of these antibodies, and provide evidence that NK1.1+, CD4+ T cells respond to NPA-bearing liposomes and deliver the help required for specific B cell activation and antibody class-switching to IgG. We found increased numbers of IL-4-producing NK1.1+, CD4+ T cells in the secondary lymphoid organs of mice administered with NPAs, and these cells also expressed CD40L, which is required for B cell activation. Additionally, we isolated and purified NK1.1+, CD4+ T cells from spleens and determined that they over-expressed 40 genes, which are key players in inflammatory processes and B cell stimulation and have TRAF6 and UNC39B1 as key nodes in their network. These results show that liposomes are membrane models that can be used to analyze the immunogenicity of lipids.