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Rapid diagnostic tests that differentiate between Gram positive, Gram negative and the absence of aerobic bacteria in milk samples from dairy cows with clinical mastitis can support antimicrobial treatment decisions and contribute to a more prudent use of antimicrobials in the dairy industry. The objective of this study was to evaluate the test characteristics of the novel rapid BACT mastitis test in discriminating causes of clinical mastitis under laboratory conditions. Test outcomes of 155 milk samples from clinical mastitis cases were incubated for 14-16 h in the BACT test and compared to results of bacteriological culture. The accuracy for detection of bacterial growth and Gram positive growth was 91 and 89%, respectively. The BACT test could provide an accurate and relatively fast decision tool for farmers to aid in antimicrobial treatment decisions in cases of clinical mastitis.
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Mastite Bovina , Leite , Animais , Feminino , Bovinos , Mastite Bovina/diagnóstico , Mastite Bovina/microbiologia , Leite/microbiologia , Leite/química , Sensibilidade e Especificidade , Técnicas Bacteriológicas/veterinária , Bactérias Gram-Positivas/isolamento & purificação , Indústria de Laticínios/métodos , Bactérias Gram-Negativas/isolamento & purificação , Testes Diagnósticos de Rotina/veterinária , Testes de Diagnóstico RápidoRESUMO
Treatment of clinical mastitis (CM) and use of antimicrobials for dry cow therapy are responsible for the majority of animal-defined daily doses of antimicrobial use (AMU) on dairy farms. However, advancements made in the last decade have enabled excluding nonsevere CM cases from antimicrobial treatment that have a high probability of cure without antimicrobials (no bacterial causes or gram-negative, excluding Klebsiella spp.) and cases with a low bacteriological cure rate (chronic cases). These advancements include availability of rapid diagnostic tests and improved udder health management practices, which reduced the incidence and infection pressure of contagious CM pathogens. This review informed an evidence-based protocol for selective CM treatment decisions based on a combination of rapid diagnostic test results, review of somatic cell count and CM records, and elucidated consequences in terms of udder health, AMU, and farm economics. Relatively fast identification of the causative agent is the most important factor in selective CM treatment protocols. Many reported studies did not indicate detrimental udder health consequences (e.g., reduced clinical or bacteriological cures, increased somatic cell count, increased culling rate, or increased recurrence of CM later in lactation) after initiating selective CM treatment protocols using on-farm testing. The magnitude of AMU reduction following a selective CM treatment protocol implementation depended on the causal pathogen distribution and protocol characteristics. Uptake of selective treatment of nonsevere CM cases differs across regions and is dependent on management systems and adoption of udder health programs. No economic losses or animal welfare issues are expected when adopting a selective versus blanket CM treatment protocol. Therefore, selective CM treatment of nonsevere cases can be a practical tool to aid AMU reduction on dairy farms.
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Anti-Infecciosos , Doenças dos Bovinos , Mastite Bovina , Feminino , Bovinos , Animais , Leite/microbiologia , Mastite Bovina/microbiologia , Anti-Infecciosos/uso terapêutico , Lactação , Glândulas Mamárias Animais/microbiologia , Contagem de Células/veterinária , Antibacterianos/uso terapêutico , Doenças dos Bovinos/tratamento farmacológicoRESUMO
Treatment of clinical mastitis (CM) contributes to antimicrobial use on dairy farms. Selective treatment of CM based on bacterial diagnosis can reduce antimicrobial use, as not all cases of CM will benefit from antimicrobial treatment, e.g., mild and moderate gram-negative infections. However, impacts of selective CM treatment on udder health and culling are not fully understood. A systematic search identified 13 studies that compared selective versus blanket CM treatment protocols. Reported outcomes were synthesized with random-effects models and presented as risk ratios or mean differences. Selective CM treatment protocol was not inferior to blanket CM treatment protocol for the outcome bacteriological cure. Noninferiority margins could not be established for the outcomes clinical cure, new intramammary infection, somatic cell count, milk yield, recurrence, or culling. However, no differences were detected between selective and blanket CM treatment protocols using traditional analyses, apart from a not clinically relevant increase in interval from treatment to clinical cure (0.4 d) in the selective group and higher proportion of clinical cure at 14 d in the selective group. The latter occurred in studies co-administering nonsteroidal anti-inflammatories only in the selective group. Bias could not be ruled out in most studies due to suboptimal randomization, although this would likely only affect subjective outcomes such as clinical cure. Hence, findings were supported by a high or moderate certainty of evidence for all outcome measures except clinical cure. In conclusion, this review supported the assertion that a selective CM treatment protocol can be adopted without adversely influencing bacteriological and clinical cure, somatic cell count, milk yield, and incidence of recurrence or culling.
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Anti-Infecciosos , Doenças dos Bovinos , Mastite Bovina , Bovinos , Feminino , Animais , Leite/microbiologia , Antibacterianos/uso terapêutico , Mastite Bovina/tratamento farmacológico , Mastite Bovina/microbiologia , Anti-Infecciosos/uso terapêutico , Contagem de Células/veterinária , Glândulas Mamárias Animais/microbiologia , Lactação , Doenças dos Bovinos/tratamento farmacológicoRESUMO
Administering intramammary antimicrobials to all mammary quarters of dairy cows at drying-off [i.e., blanket dry cow therapy (BDCT)] has been a mainstay of mastitis prevention and control. However, as udder health has considerably improved over recent decades with reductions in intramammary infection prevalence at drying-off and the introduction of teat sealants, BDCT may no longer be necessary on all dairy farms, thereby supporting antimicrobial stewardship efforts. This narrative review summarizes available literature regarding current dry cow therapy practices and associated impacts of selective dry cow therapy (SDCT) on udder health, milk production, economics, antimicrobial use, and antimicrobial resistance. Various methods to identify infections at drying-off that could benefit from antimicrobial treatment are described for selecting cows or mammary quarters for treatment, including utilizing somatic cell count thresholds, pathogen identification, previous clinical mastitis history, or a combination of criteria. Selection methods may be enacted at the herd, cow, or quarter levels. Producers' and veterinarians' motivations for antimicrobial use are discussed. Based on review findings, SDCT can be adopted without negative consequences for udder health and milk production, and concurrent teat sealant use is recommended, especially in udder quarters receiving no intramammary antimicrobials. Furthermore, herd selection should be considered for SDCT implementation in addition to cow or quarter selection, as BDCT may still be temporarily necessary in some herds for optimal mastitis control. Costs and benefits of SDCT vary among herds, whereas impacts on antimicrobial resistance remain unclear. In summary, SDCT is a viable management option for maintaining udder health and milk production while improving antimicrobial stewardship in the dairy industry.
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Anti-Infecciosos , Doenças dos Bovinos , Mastite Bovina , Animais , Antibacterianos/farmacologia , Anti-Infecciosos/farmacologia , Anti-Infecciosos/uso terapêutico , Bovinos , Doenças dos Bovinos/tratamento farmacológico , Contagem de Células/veterinária , Indústria de Laticínios , Feminino , Lactação , Glândulas Mamárias Animais , Mastite Bovina/tratamento farmacológico , Mastite Bovina/epidemiologia , Mastite Bovina/prevenção & controle , LeiteRESUMO
Widespread veterinary use of antimicrobials might contribute to the increasing burden of antimicrobial resistance. Despite many successful efforts to reduce veterinary antimicrobial use in the Netherlands, antimicrobial use on a substantial number of farms has remained relatively high over the past few years. Farm-specific solutions are required to further lower antimicrobial use on these farms. Reducing the burden of animal diseases at the farm level by means of a structured approach to animal health planning could be promising. This intervention study aimed to evaluate the main effects of an animal health planning program developed by an advisory team consisting of a dairy farmer, his veterinarian, and his feed adviser under the guidance of a professional facilitator. During an initial farm visit, the advisory team developed a farm-specific animal health planning program with support from the facilitator. After 1 yr, the effects of this program on animal health, production parameters, and antimicrobial use were evaluated and compared with control farms that did not have a facilitated animal health planning program. Antimicrobial use on intervention farms was significantly reduced between the start and the end of the study period; however, no significant differences in the rate of reduction between the intervention and control groups could be observed (-19% and -14%, respectively). Reduced antimicrobial use did not result in negative effects on animal health and production parameters during the study period in both groups. On intervention farms, a significant positive relationship was found between the percentage of completed action points at farm level and the percentage reduction in antimicrobial use. The level of compliance with action points and the quality of collaboration between farmer and advisers were positively associated with the accomplishment of corresponding objectives. However, the total number of objectives was negatively associated with the level of compliance with action points and tended to be negatively associated with the percentage reduction in antimicrobial use at farm level. Gradually reducing antimicrobial use without adverse effects on animal health and productivity is possible by adjusting management practices in a team effort. Fostering good collaboration among farmer, veterinarian, and feed adviser and focusing on a limited number of objectives have positive effects on the outcomes of the animal health planning program and antimicrobial use.
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Comitês Consultivos/organização & administração , Antibacterianos , Indústria de Laticínios , Revisão de Uso de Medicamentos/organização & administração , Planejamento em Saúde/organização & administração , Animais , Países Baixos , Avaliação de Programas e Projetos de Saúde , Médicos VeterináriosRESUMO
Streptococcus suis (S. suis) infections in weaned pigs are common and responsible for a high consumption of antimicrobials, and their presence is assumed to be multi-factorial. A specific evidence-based veterinary guideline to support the control of S. suis in weaned pigs was developed for veterinary practitioners in the Netherlands in 2014. Adherence to the S. suis clinical practice guideline helps veterinary practitioners to prevent and control the disease in a systematical approach and thereby improve antimicrobial stewardship and contribute to the prevention of antimicrobial resistance in animals and humans. The impact of such a clinical practice guideline on (animal) disease management depends not only on its content, but also largely on the extent to which practitioners adhere to the clinical guideline in practice. When the S. suis guideline was published, no specific activities were undertaken to support veterinarians' uptake and implementation, thereby contributing to suboptimal adherence in clinical practice. As the S. suis guideline was comprehensively written by veterinary experts following an evidence-based approach, our aim was not to judge the (scientific) quality of the guideline but to study the possibility to improve the currently low adherence of this guideline in veterinary practice. This paper describes the systematic development, using Implementation Mapping, of a theory-based intervention program to support swine veterinarians' adherence to the S. suis guideline. The knowledge, skills, beliefs about capabilities, and beliefs about consequences domains are addressed in the program, which includes seven evidence-based methods (modelling, tailoring, feedback, discussion, persuasive communication, active learning, and self-monitoring) for use in program activities such as a peer-learning meeting and an e-learning module. The intervention program has been developed for practicing swine veterinarians, lasts eight months, and is evaluated through a stepped-wedge design. The Implementation Mapping approach ensured that all relevant adopters and implementers were involved, and that outcomes, determinants (influencing factors), and objectives were systematically discussed.
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Doenças dos Animais , Anti-Infecciosos , Infecções Estreptocócicas , Streptococcus suis , Doenças dos Suínos , Médicos Veterinários , Animais , Humanos , Suínos , Infecções Estreptocócicas/prevenção & controle , Infecções Estreptocócicas/veterinária , Doenças dos Suínos/prevenção & controleRESUMO
The use of antimicrobials in the pig sector in the Netherlands has been reduced by more than 70% over the last decade. However, there is still a considerable number of pig farms that have not been able to lower their antimicrobial usage (AMU) to a sufficiently low level, comparable to the majority of the other pig farms. Therefore, an intervention study was initiated to lower on-farm antimicrobial use in which 45 pig farms with high AMU were recruited. These farms were coached over a period of 2 years whereby different management interventions were introduced. During the 2-year study period a significant reduction of 13 and 17% in total AMU was seen in weaned piglets and fattening pigs respectively. The introduction of coaching as well as multiple management interventions were (univariably) associated with the decrease in AMU. After mutual adjustment of coaching and individual interventions, the association between coaching and AMU became substantially weaker, indicating that coaching and interventions were interrelated and specific interventions explained the reduction in AMU. In conclusion, a coaching effect was observed in this study, with an effect on AMU through specific interventions. More insights are needed regarding the role and effects of coaching on the influence on the management team comprising the farmer, veterinarian and (feed) advisor, and interventions implemented.
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BACKGROUND: Antibiotic use and resistance in animal production are a concern to public health, and there is an urgent need to reduce antibiotic use in farm animals. To prevent blame shifting, professionals from human medicine, animal medicine and environmental backgrounds must collaborate to tackle this issue. Veterinarians are typically responsible for overseeing and prescribing antibiotic use in animals. There are currently no available studies on the opinions of Irish farm animal veterinarians on antibiotic use, reduction opportunities and their relationships with farmers. A digital survey was developed and sent out to Irish farm animal veterinarians. This paper presents the results of a cross-sectional study of Irish farm animal veterinarians' attitudes towards antimicrobial stewardship, their prescribing behaviours, antibiotic reduction opportunities and their attitudes for the future of antibiotic use. The veterinarian-farmer relationship is examined and potential interventions to reduce antibiotic use on farms are identified. RESULTS: In total, 114 complete questionnaires were received, representing approximately 11 per cent of all farm animal veterinarians in Ireland. Respondents were aware of the problem of antibiotic resistance and recognise their role in the fight against it. They realise what actions they must take to reduce antibiotic use and identify barriers that prevent their farmer clients from implementing their advice. Many of them say that they can reduce antibiotic use on farms in the future, but some remain doubtful. There was no statistical difference between veterinarians that had less experience working than those that had more experience in their attitudes towards future reduction in antibiotic use. CONCLUSION: Most of the respondents seek to use antibiotics as judiciously as they can. The majority agree that antibiotic overuse is the main contributor to antibiotic resistance. Possible solutions to reduce antibiotic use include the development of antibiotic treatment guidelines, assigning one unique practice to each farm and compulsory CPD (Continuous Professional Development) courses.
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The Netherlands has been very successful in the last decade in reducing antimicrobial use in animals. On about a quarter of farms, antimicrobial use in weaned pigs remains relatively high. As Streptococcus suis (S. suis) infections are responsible for a high consumption of antimicrobials, a specific veterinary guideline to control S. suis was developed, but seemed to be poorly adopted by veterinarians. Guided by the theoretical domains framework, the aim of this study was to identify determinants influencing veterinarians' adherence to this guideline. We interviewed 13 pig veterinarians. Interviewees described multiple approaches to managing S. suis problems and adherence to the guideline. Mentioned determinants could be categorized into 12 theoretical domains. The following six domains were mentioned in all interviews: knowledge, skills, beliefs about capabilities, beliefs about consequences, social influences, and environmental context and resources. The insights derived from this study are relevant for understanding factors influencing veterinarians' adoption of scientific evidence and guidelines and can be used to develop evidence-based implementation strategies for veterinary guidelines.
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Introduction: Indonesia has a large broiler industry with extensive antimicrobial use (AMU) according to empirical evidence. However, there are no quantitative data of on-farm AMU. Quantification of AMU at farm level is crucial to guide interventions on antimicrobial stewardship (AMS). The objective of this study was to compare on-farm AMU monitoring methods, to assess which monitoring method is best suited to gain insight in the quantitative AMU at farm level in medium-scale Indonesian broiler farms. Method: AMU was calculated using four different indicators-mg/PCU (mass-based), TFUDDindo (Treatment Frequency of Used Daily Dose, dose-based), TFDDDvet (Treatment Frequency of Defined Daily Dose, dose-based), and TFcount - based (count-based)-for the total AMU of 98 production cycles with an average length of 30 days. Results: Broilers were exposed to an average of 10 days of antimicrobial treatments per production cycle, whereas 60.8% of the antimicrobials belonged to the Highest Priority Critically Important Antimicrobials (HPCIAs). For each pair of indicators, the Spearman rank correlation coefficient was calculated to assess if the production cycles were ranked consistently in increasing AMU across the different indicators. The correlation varied between 0.4 and 0.8. Discussion: This study illustrates the considerable difference in the ranking of AMU between the different indicators. In a setting comparable to medium-scale broiler farms in Indonesia, where resources are scarce and there is no professional oversight, the TFcount - based method is best suitable. Before implementing an AMU monitoring method, careful consideration of the use-indicators is paramount to achieve fair benchmarking.
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Selection and spread of Extended Spectrum Beta-Lactamase (ESBL) -producing Enterobacteriaceae within animal production systems and potential spillover to humans is a major concern. Intramammary treatment of dairy cows with first-generation cephalosporins is a common practice and potentially selects for ESBL-producing Enterobacteriaceae, although it is unknown whether this really occurs in the bovine fecal environment. We aimed to study the potential effects of intramammary application of cephapirin (CP) and cefalonium (CL) to select for ESBL-producing Escherichia coli in the intestinal content of treated dairy cows and in manure slurry, using in vitro competition experiments with ESBL and non-ESBL E. coli isolates. No selection of ESBL-producing E. coli was observed at or below concentrations of 0.8 µg/ml and 4.0 µg/ml in bovine feces for CP and CL, respectively, and at or below 8.0 µg/ml and 4.0 µg/ml, respectively, in manure slurry. We calculated that the maximum concentration of CP and CL after intramammary treatment with commercial products will not exceed 0.29 µg/ml in feces and 0.03 µg/ml in manure slurry. Therefore, the results of this study did not find evidence supporting the selection of ESBL-producing E. coli in bovine feces or in manure slurry after intramammary use of commercial CP or CL-containing products.
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Infecções por Escherichia coli , Escherichia coli , Animais , Antibacterianos/farmacologia , Bovinos , Cefalosporinas/farmacologia , Enterobacteriaceae , Infecções por Escherichia coli/tratamento farmacológico , Infecções por Escherichia coli/veterinária , Fezes , Feminino , Humanos , Esterco , Testes de Sensibilidade Microbiana , beta-LactamasesRESUMO
Antimicrobial use (AMU) in humans and animals facilitates the emergence of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). With increasing AMR being recognised as a major global threat for public health, responsible AMU is strongly advocated in both human and veterinary medicine. Knowledge on factors influencing antimicrobial prescribing behaviour of companion animal veterinarians is needed to promote responsible AMU in companion animals and to improve compliance with current legislation and guidelines. The present study aimed to quantitively investigate attitudes and perceptions of companion animal veterinarians towards AMU and AMR and to identify associations with demographic characteristics as possible explanatory variables. A self-administered questionnaire was developed based upon an earlier qualitative interview study, and 1608 potential participants (i.e. practising companion animal veterinarians) were invited. The questionnaire included questions addressing general descriptives of the respondents and questions with 6-point Likert scale statements, to assess attitudes towards AMU, AMR, factors influencing antimicrobial prescribing, and possible options to support responsible AMU. The response rate was 32% (22% when complete questionnaires considered). Categorical Principal Component Analysis (CATPCA) was conducted on 76 Likert scale questions. This resulted in a final model with 37 questions explaining 38.7% of the variance of the question scores, with three underlying dimensions ("attitudinal profiles"). Additionally, general descriptives were added to the CATPCA as possible explanatory variables. The first dimension, related to "social responsibility" was positively associated with veterinarians working in clinics dedicated to companion animals, with veterinarians working in a referral clinic, and with more experienced veterinarians. The second dimension was related to "scepticism", which was positively associated with being a male veterinarian and with more experienced veterinarians. The third dimension was related to "risk avoidance", especially regarding surgical procedures, and was negatively associated with veterinarians working in clinics in urban areas and with veterinarians working part-time. Antimicrobial prescribing behaviour was self-reported to be well considered, and respondents did not see economic drivers as important influencing factors. The unwillingness of owners and financial constraints were perceived as important barriers for performing further diagnostics. To improve AMU, a multifaceted approach, taking differences between companion animal veterinarians (e.g., in experience and gender) and differences in work situation (e.g., full-time versus part-time) into account, should be directed at companion animal veterinarians and owners. Moreover, a joint and comprehensive effort of several stakeholders, like veterinary nurses, guideline developers, pharmaceutical industry, and providers of diagnostics, is needed to optimise AMU in companion animals.
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Anti-Infecciosos/uso terapêutico , Atitude , Competência Clínica/estatística & dados numéricos , Resistência Microbiana a Medicamentos , Percepção , Médicos Veterinários/psicologia , Animais , Países Baixos , Animais de Estimação , Médicos Veterinários/estatística & dados numéricosRESUMO
Use of antimicrobials selects for antimicrobial resistance, and this poses a threat for both human and animal health. Although previous studies show that total antimicrobial use in Dutch companion animal clinics is relatively low and decreasing, the majority of antimicrobials prescribed are categorised as critically important for human medicine by the World Health Organization (WHO). Large differences in use between clinics are also observed. Identification of factors that influence the prescribing behaviour of veterinarians is needed to tailor future interventions aimed at promoting prudent use of antimicrobials in companion animals. The aim of this study was to explore factors influencing the antimicrobial prescribing behaviour of companion animal veterinarians in the Netherlands. Face-to-face, semi-structured interviews were used to interview 18 Dutch companion animal veterinarians. Interviews were held until theoretical data saturation was reached. An interview guide was used to structure the interviews, and ATLAS.ti 7.5 was used to manage and analyse the qualitative data. An iterative approach was applied to develop a conceptual model of factors that influence antimicrobial prescribing behaviour. The conceptual model shows four major categories of factors that influence the antimicrobial prescribing behaviour: veterinarian-related factors, patient-related (i.e. owner- and pet-related) factors, treatment-related factors (i.e. alternative treatment options and antimicrobial-related factors) and contextual factors (i.e. professional interactions, further diagnostics and environmental factors). All four major categories of influencing factors should be addressed to improve awareness on antimicrobial prescribing behaviour and to develop an antimicrobial stewardship programme for companion animal clinics.
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Anti-Infecciosos/uso terapêutico , Prescrições de Medicamentos/veterinária , Animais de Estimação , Padrões de Prática Médica/estatística & dados numéricos , Médicos Veterinários/estatística & dados numéricos , Animais , Prescrições de Medicamentos/estatística & dados numéricos , Países BaixosRESUMO
Little is known about attitudes of veterinarians towards antibiotic use and reduction opportunities, and their interaction with farmers herein. Therefore, a questionnaire was developed and sent out to Dutch farm animal veterinarians. The response rate was 40%. Categorical Principal Component Analysis (CATPCA) was conducted on statements measuring attitudes towards the use of antibiotics and reduction opportunities in farm animals, the veterinary pharmacy and the interaction of veterinarians with farmers in improving animal health. This resulted in 3 underlying dimensions. Additionally, possible explanatory variables (main farm animal species working with, years of experience in practice) were added to the CATPCA to identify differences between veterinarians. Veterinarians working with different animal species were comparable in their opinions towards the necessity to reduce veterinary antibiotic use and the current policy to halve veterinary antibiotic consumption. Veterinarians working with ruminants - "ruminant specialists" - and veterinarians working with several different animal species - "generalists" - reported to feel more uncertainty in acting independently from farmers' and significant others' (other advisors, colleagues) demands for antibiotics or opinions than veterinarians mainly working with intensively raised animals (pigs, poultry, veal calves) - "intensive specialists". Years of experience in practice was negatively related to feelings of uncertainty in acting independently. At the other hand, years of experience was associated with being less concerned about the possible contribution of veterinary antibiotic use to antimicrobial resistance, considering it more important to keep the right to prescribe and sell antibiotics, and being less hesitant to apply antibiotics to prevent (further dissemination of) animal diseases. Intensive specialists expected most from improving feed quality and benchmarking of antibiotic prescribing and use in reducing veterinary antibiotic use; ruminant specialists and generalists preferred improving housing and climate conditions and benchmarking. The by veterinarians perceived main reasons for farmers not to comply to veterinary advices to improve animal health were related to financial and time restrictions, although intensive specialists stressed the importance of conflicting advices from other advisors as a cause for non-compliance. The results showed that younger veterinarians might require additional support to act independently from farmers' and significant others'. Additionally, experienced veterinarians could be educated about possible risks related to veterinary overuse of antibiotics. Alternative approaches should be identified for veterinarians to preserve a decent income without pharmacy incomes. Especially in intensive farming, ways should be found to prevent contradictory advices as a barrier not to implement veterinary advices to improve animal health.