Morphological Profiling of Unilateral Condylar Hyperplasia: Implications for Surgical Decision-Making.

OBJECTIVE: Unilateral condylar hyperplasia (UCH) presents challenges with functional and esthetic concerns, including facial and chin asymmetry, prognathism, class III malocclusion, and temporomandibular joint symptoms. This study aims to precisely locate condylar and mandibular asymmetry in patients with UCH, aiding targeted surgical correction and addressing persistent skeletal changes. METHODS: This retrospective study analyzed data from patients with UCH and controls, utilizing high-quality cone beam computed tomography scans with 1 mm or fewer slices. Morphometric points were placed using Planmeca software, measuring linear distances on both affected and unaffected sides. RESULTS: In a cohort of 40 patients (29 UCH, 11 controls), significant differences in condylar head and neck lengths were observed between the affected and unaffected sides in patients with UCH ( P = 0.0019). However, ramus length showed no significant variation ( P = 0.65). When comparing differences in condylar head and neck length between controls and patients with UCH, a substantial contrast was evident ( P = 1.98e-07), while ramus length differences were not significant ( P = 1.00). The median condylar head and neck lengths were 20.3 mm for controls, 19.78 mm for the unaffected side in patients with UCH, and 23.48 mm for the affected side. CONCLUSION: Facial asymmetry in UCH primarily results from differences in condylar head and neck length, not ramus length. This emphasizes the importance of high condylectomy in addition to bilateral sagittal split osteotomy to achieve improved symmetry and reduced temporomandibular joint dysfunction. Understanding these regional skeletal changes is critical for effective UCH treatment.

A Systematic Review of Idiopathic Secondary Stenosis Following Index Surgery for Craniosynostosis.

BACKGROUND: Primary craniosynostosis is a congenital craniofacial disorder in which cranial sutures prematurely close. Iatrogenic secondary stenosis is abnormal cranial suture closure caused by surgical manipulation of the suture. In contrast, idiopathic secondary stenosis develops in a suture that did not undergo surgical manipulation. The objective of this systematic review was to consolidate and characterize the incidence, classification, and management of idiopathic secondary stenosis in the literature. METHODS: Literature from PubMed, Web Of Science, and EMBASE from 1970 to March 2022 was reviewed. The following information was extracted for individual patients: incidence of idiopathic secondary stenosis, index primary craniosynostosis, primary surgical correction, presenting signs of secondary stenosis, management, and further complications. RESULTS: Seventeen articles detailing 1181 patients were included. Ninety-one developed idiopathic secondary stenosis (7.7%). Only 3 of these patients were syndromic. The most common index craniosynostosis was sagittal synostosis (83.5%). The most common suture undergoing idiopathic secondary stenosis was the coronal suture (91.2%). Patients presented at a median age of 24 months. The most common presenting sign was a radiologic finding (85.7%), although some patients presented with headache or head deformity. Only 2 patients, both syndromic, had complications following surgical correction of secondary stenosis. CONCLUSIONS: Idiopathic secondary stenosis is a rare, long-term complication following index surgical repair of craniosynostosis. It can occur following any surgical technique. It most commonly affects the coronal suture but can affect any of the sutures, including pansynostosis. Surgical correction is curative in nonsyndromic patients.

Sociodemographic Disparities in Access to Cleft Rhinoplasty.

Various sociodemographic factors affect patient access to care. This study aims to assess how factors such as government-funded insurance and socioeconomic status impact the ability of adolescents with cleft lip-associated nasal deformities to access secondary rhinoplasty procedures. Patients older than 13 years old with a history of cleft lip/palate were identified in the National Inpatient Sample database from 2010 to 2012. Those who received a secondary rhinoplasty were identified using the International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision (ICD-9) procedural codes. A multivariate logistic regression model with post hoc analyses was performed to analyze if insurance status, socioeconomic status, and hospital-level variables impacted the likelihood of undergoing rhinoplasty. Of the 874 patients with a cleft lip/palate history, 154 (17.6%) underwent a secondary rhinoplasty. After controlling for various patient-level and hospital-level variables, living in a higher income quartile (based on zip code of residence) was an independent predictor of receiving a secondary cleft rhinoplasty (odds ratio=1.946, P =0.024). Patients had lower odds of receiving a cleft rhinoplasty if care occurred in a private, nonprofit hospital compared with a government-owned hospital (odds ratio=0.506, P =0.030). Income status plays a significant role in cleft rhinoplasty access, with patients from lower income households less likely to receive a secondary cleft rhinoplasty. Hospital-specific factors such as geographic region, bed size, urbanization, and teaching status may also create barriers for patients and their families in accessing surgical care for cleft lip nasal deformities.

Dorsal Augmentation With the Dorsal Extension Spreader Graft.

Spreader grafts traditionally are used to improve airflow through opening the internal nasal valve, as well as enhance the cosmetic appearance of the nose. The graft's versatility proves useful in surgical correction of several nasal profiles by enhancing dorsal aesthetic lines and by maintenance of the nasal pyramid at midline. The authors describe a modified spreader graft that adds an additional benefit of dorsal augmentation in patients with underprojected or saddle noses. This technique utilizes harvested septal cartilage and fixation of the graft that extends beyond the septal and upper lateral cartilage dorsal border to improve nasal dorsum height. Patients who received this operative technique by the senior author were identified and their operative courses and surgical outcomes were analyzed. Case examples are provided to illustrate indications and outcomes. This grafting technique allows for improved functionality, defined dorsal aesthetic lines, changes in nasal width, and a more balanced profile in patients with underprojected noses.

The First Hybrid International Educational Comprehensive Cleft Care Workshop.

OBJECTIVE: Describe the first hybrid global simulation-based comprehensive cleft care workshop, evaluate impact on participants, and compare experiences based on in-person versus virtual attendance. DESIGN: Cross-sectional survey-based evaluation. SETTING: International comprehensive cleft care workshop. PARTICIPANTS: Total of 489 participants. INTERVENTIONS: Three-day simulation-based hybrid comprehensive cleft care workshop. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Participant demographic data, perceived barriers and interventions needed for global comprehensive cleft care delivery, participant workshop satisfaction, and perceived short-term impact on practice stratified by in-person versus virtual attendance. RESULTS: The workshop included 489 participants from 5 continents. The response rate was 39.9%. Participants perceived financial factors (30.3%) the most significant barrier and improvement in training (39.8%) as the most important intervention to overcome barriers facing cleft care delivery in low to middle-income countries. All participants reported a high level of satisfaction with the workshop and a strong positive perceived short-term impact on their practice. Importantly, while this was true for both in-person and virtual attendees, in-person attendees reported a significantly higher satisfaction with the workshop (28.63 ± 3.08 vs 27.63 ± 3.93; P = .04) and perceived impact on their clinical practice (22.37 ± 3.42 vs 21.02 ± 3.45 P = .01). CONCLUSION: Hybrid simulation-based educational comprehensive cleft care workshops are overall well received by participants and have a positive perceived impact on their clinical practices. In-person attendance is associated with significantly higher satisfaction and perceived impact on practice. Considering that financial and health constraints may limit live meeting attendance, future efforts will focus on making in-person and virtual attendance more comparable.

Mutations in TFAP2B and previously unimplicated genes of the BMP, Wnt, and Hedgehog pathways in syndromic craniosynostosis.

Craniosynostosis (CS) is a frequent congenital anomaly featuring the premature fusion of 1 or more sutures of the cranial vault. Syndromic cases, featuring additional congenital anomalies, make up 15% of CS. While many genes underlying syndromic CS have been identified, the cause of many syndromic cases remains unknown. We performed exome sequencing of 12 syndromic CS cases and their parents, in whom previous genetic evaluations were unrevealing. Damaging de novo or transmitted loss of function (LOF) mutations were found in 8 genes that are highly intolerant to LOF mutation (P = 4.0 × 10-8); additionally, a rare damaging mutation in SOX11, which has a lower level of intolerance, was identified. Four probands had rare damaging mutations (2 de novo) in TFAP2B, a transcription factor that orchestrates neural crest cell migration and differentiation; this mutation burden is highly significant (P = 8.2 × 10-12). Three probands had rare damaging mutations in GLI2, SOX11, or GPC4, which function in the Hedgehog, BMP, and Wnt signaling pathways; other genes in these pathways have previously been implicated in syndromic CS. Similarly, damaging de novo mutations were identified in genes encoding the chromatin modifier KAT6A, and CTNNA1, encoding catenin α-1. These findings establish TFAP2B as a CS gene, have implications for assessing risk to subsequent children in these families, and provide evidence implicating other genes in syndromic CS. This high yield indicates the value of performing exome sequencing of syndromic CS patients when sequencing of known disease loci is unrevealing.

Utilizing Age of Menarche to Optimize Pediatric Rhinoplasty.

BACKGROUND/PURPOSE: Pediatric septorhinoplasty has sparked controversial debate amongst craniofacial surgeons, particularly due to its potential growth disturbances of the face and nose. The purpose of this study is (1) to conduct a systematic literature review that explores unique considerations and limitations associated with performing rhinoplasty in the pediatric population; (2) to discuss objective indicators for determining craniofacial skeleton maturation; (3) to perform a case series to further understand whether the age of menarche serves as a good proxy for estimating the time of facial growth maturation, and by extension, whether a post-menarchal patient is a suitable candidate for rhinoplasty. METHODS: Systematic literature review was performed in order to assess unique considerations and limitations of pediatric rhinoplasty. Retrospective chart review and anthropometric (9 linear, 3 angular, 6 indices) measurements were performed for ten pediatric female patients who underwent open septo-rhinoplasty. Follow-up times ranged from 66 to 103 weeks. Patients were separated into 2 cohorts according to age at the time of menarche. Cohort 1 consisted of patients who had undergone menses for longer than 2 years at the time of rhinoplasty, whereas Cohort 2 comprised of patients who either had menses within 2 years of rhinoplasty or did not have menses at the time of rhinoplasty. Data included demographic factors, procedural variables, revision surgeries, and complications. Measurements were conducted using VECTRA software (Canfield Scientific, Parsippany, NJ). Differences in measurements between the 2 postoperative timepoints were compared. RESULTS: Literature review yielded 17 articles, which had conflicting opinions regarding pediatric rhinoplasty and ultimately, highlighting the need for a more objective tool for guiding the decision to perform rhinoplasty.Patients in Cohort 1 had minimal deviations in measurements over time, within the exception of an increase in nasal tip projection and a decrease in nasolabial angle and facial width. Patients in Cohort 2 had decreases in facial height, upper facial height, nasal tip angle, and nasofrontal angle. Nasolabial angle decreased for both cohorts. Of the ten patients, 1 in Cohort 2 underwent revision rhinoplasty. CONCLUSIONS: Our case series suggests that anthropometric measurements remain relatively more stable for patients who have undergone menses for more than 2 years, compared to those who have not. Although this study has limitations, further investigation is warranted in order to determine whether age of menarche may serve as a useful tool for craniofacial surgeons in guiding the decision to perform rhinoplasty.

A Preliminary Management Algorithm for Velopharyngeal Insufficiency in Cleft-Orthognathic Patients.

PURPOSE: Patients born with a cleft palate often suffer from velopharyngeal insufficiency (VPI) due to the soft palate musculature's abnormal structure. Surgical correction of the palate at a young age can hinder maxillary growth, requiring surgical correction of the maxillomandibular discrepancy at skeletal maturity. Orthognathic surgery can then cause or further exacerbate VPi in these patients. The purpose of this paper is to assess cleft-orthog-nathic patients under the lens of persistent or newly-developed VPi, to understand outcomes and generate a targeted management algorithm. METHODS: A retrospective study was performed inspecting cleft-orthognathic patients presenting to a single surgeon. Patients with sufficient follow-up were placed into predefined algorithmic cohorts by their VPi development pattern in relation to orthognathic surgery. They were further stratified into groups by level of adherence to our algorithm to evaluate VPi outcomes. Demographic factors, risk factors, and outcomes were compared between groups via Welch t test and Fisher exact test. RESULTS: Fifty-one patients were examined, including 16 with VPI. Velopharyngeal insufficiency fully resolved amongst all algorithmically adherent patients and remained in nonadherent patients ( P  < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Our targeted algorithm may improve symptoms and the management of VPI in cleft-orthognathic patients. Multi-centered studies with larger sample sizes and prospective studies are encouraged to validate our proposed treatment algorithm further.

Postoperative Edema Resolution Post-Orthognathic Triple Jaw Surgery: A Three-Dimensional Volumetric Analysis.

PURPOSE: The final result following orthognathic surgery may be hidden for months due to postoperative swelling. However, no substantial evidence supports this time estimate. Our study aims to three-dimensionally quantify volumetric changes in facial edema following triple-jaw surgery. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This was a retrospective, three-dimensional (3D) study of patients who underwent primary orthognathic triple jaw surgery (Le Fort I, Bilateral Sagittal Split Osteotomy (BSSO), and osseous genioplasty) by the senior author (DMS). Vectra 3D Software (Canfield, Fairfield, NJ) was used to assess and quantify volumetric changes between serial 3D photos. An inverse line of best-fit was plotted to assess reduction in postoperative facial edema. The effects of gender, age, body mass index, and tranexamic acid administration on swelling resolution were analyzed through mixed linear model analysis. RESULTS: A total of 46 patients (198 images) met the study criteria. The equation for the inverse function line of best fit was y = -13.14ln (x) + 39.54 (P < 0.01). On average, 60% of the swelling resolved in 1 month, 84% after 6 months, and nearly 93% after 12 months. There were no significant differences in the rate of swelling resolution when accounting for age, gender, body mass index, or tranexamic acid administration. CONCLUSIONS: Most facial edema resolved during the first month following triple jaw surgery, with significant reduction in swelling between 6 and 12 months postoperatively. After 1 year, approximately 10% of the initial edema remained.

Which Maturation Indicator is Most Accurate in Predicting Cessation of Facial Growth? A Systematic Review of the Literature.

PURPOSE: The determination of facial growth maturity is crucial before surgical intervention in pediatric patients. To the author's knowledge, there are several indicators of skeletal maturity, but there remains a lack of consensus regarding their application when determining surgical timing. The purpose of this study was to determine the most accurate skeletal maturity indicator in predicting facial growth maturation. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A systematic review was done to determine the most predictive indicator for facial growth maturity. We hypothesized that menses' onset was the most predictive of these maturity indicators. This review was conducted in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. A systematic search of MEDLINE, Cochrane, Embase, Scopus databases, and Google Scholar, was done in October 2020 to identify citations related to maturity indicators assessing craniofacial growth. The quality of evidence was determined using the Joanna Briggs Institute Critical Appraisal Checklist for Cohort Studies. RESULTS: Of the 13,289 articles screened, 1 retrospective and 1 prospective study met inclusion criteria. No articles were identified that provided evidence for our hypothesis. Based on the 2 included studies, it was concluded that a handwrist x-ray was more predictive of facial growth cessation (compared to other skeletal maturity indicators). CONCLUSIONS: Based on the literature, handwrist radiography serves as the most predictive method in determining the facial growth maturity. The paucity of articles within this investigation highlights the need for greater research efforts to investigate the predictability of indicators to evaluate facial growth maturation. PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER: CRD42020207388.

Major Complications and Associated Risk Factors for Osseous Genioplasty With Bimaxillary Orthognathic Surgery: An American College of Surgeons-National Surgical Quality Improvement Program Analysis.

PURPOSE: Patients with significant dentofacial deformities undergoing aesthetic and functional orthognathic surgery may often require genioplasty to advance the position of the pogonion relative to B point. No study to date has evaluated nationally registered data pertaining to addition of osseous genioplasty to bimaxillary orthognathic surgery and its associated clinical outcomes. METHODS: Data was extracted from the National Surgical Quality Improvement Program from 2010 to 2018 using current procedural terminology codes pertaining to Le Fort I osteotomy (LF), bilateral sagittal split osteotomy (BSSO), and osseous genioplasty (G) and divided into 2 cohorts: bimaxillary orthognathic surgery with and without osseous genioplasty. Thirty-day postoperative outcomes inherently recorded within National Surgical Quality Improvement Program were identified and recorded. Chi-squared analysis and unpaired 2-tail t tests were performed between the cohorts and their respective outcomes to determine significant relationships with significance set as P < 0.05. RESULTS: There were 373 patients double- or triple-jaw patients identified from the years 2010 to 2018. The most common recorded indication for LF/BSSO was maxillary hypoplasia (27.3%) and mandibular hypoplasia (6.8%). The most common indications for LF/BSSO/G were maxillary hypoplasia (16.1%) and maxillary asymmetry (16.1%). In comparison to LF/BBSO only, LF/BSSO/GP was not associated with any differences in the rate of surgical (0.0% versus 0.31%, P = 0.72) or medical complications (0.0% versus 0.63%, P = 0.60), in addition to unplanned readmissions (0.0% versus 1.56% versus P = 0.41) or reoperations (0.0% versus 1.25%, P = 0.46). However, osseous genioplasty addition was associated with increased overall operating time (271.77 versus 231.75 minutes, P = 0.04). CONCLUSIONS: Osseous genioplasty does not alter short-term, 30-day complication rate when performed with bimaxillary orthognathic surgery. As reoperation rates remained relatively unchanged, it can be inferred that immediate adverse events or patient dissatisfaction were not apparent within 30 days. Although mean operating time is slightly longer, cardiopulmonary resuscitation without medical comorbidity was achieved at the conclusion of the procedure.

A Comprehensive Single-Center Analysis of Postoperative Nausea and Vomiting Following Orthognathic Surgery.

BACKGROUND: Postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV) remains a major clinical end-point for directing enhanced recovery after surgery (ERAS) protocols in facial plastic surgery. This study aimed to identify risk factors for PONV and evaluate strategies for PONV reduction in orthognathic surgery patients. METHODS: A retrospective cohort study was performed among patients receiving orthognathic surgery at our institution from 2011 to 2018. Patient demographics, surgical operative and anesthesia notes, medications, and nausea/vomiting were assessed for each patient. The amount of opioid analgesia given both perioperatively and postoperatively was recorded and converted into morphine equivalents (MEQ). Stepwise regression analysis was used to identify significant risk factors for PONV. Post hoc analyses were employed to compare PONV among patients based on MEQ dosage and antiemetic prophylaxis regimes. RESULTS: A total of 492 patients were included; mean age was 23.0 years (range: 13-60); 54.4% were female. The majority of patients received concurrent Le Fort I osteotomy, BSSO, and genioplasty (70.1%). During hospitalization, 59.4% of patients experienced nausea requiring antiemetic medications and 28.4% experienced emesis. Stepwise regression yielded Apfel scores (P = 0.003) and postoperative opioids (P = 0.013) as the strongest predictors of PONV. Post hoc analyses showed that undertreatment with prophylactic antiemetics (based on Apfel) predicted increased PONV (+12.9%, P = 0.020), and that lower postoperative MEQs (<28.0) predicted decreased PONV (-11.8%, P = 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: The study findings confirm the high incidence of PONV among orthognathic surgical patients and stratify previously reported PONV risk factors. More aggressive utilization of antiemetic medications and decreased dependence on opioid analgesia may decrease nausea/vomiting following orthognathic surgery.

Outcomes in Pediatric Maxillofacial Reconstruction With Vascularized Fibular Flaps: A Systematic Review.

BACKGROUND: The purpose of this study was to examine the complications and outcomes after maxillofacial reconstruction using the free fibular flap in the pediatric population. METHODS: A systematic review and descriptive analysis were conducted using data variables, including study characteristics; patient characteristics; postoperative complications (major and minor); surgical revision; and dental rehabilitation. RESULTS: The systematic review resulted in 1622 articles, 55 of which met inclusion criteria for this study. The 55 articles consisted of 17 case series and 38 case reports with level III/IV and level V of evidence, respectively. Of the 155 identified pediatric patients, the rate of major complications was 13.5% and minor complications was 24.5%. The most common complication was mild growth distortion (n = 7) at the recipient site. Complications at the donor site were less common. During follow-up, 29 patients (18.7%) underwent or awaited surgical revision, and 43 patients (27.7%) underwent or awaited dental rehabilitation. CONCLUSIONS: Our study suggests that the free fibular flap for pediatric maxillofacial reconstruction is safe and reliable. Additionally, surgical revision to correct the functional impairments resulting from primary reconstruction using the free fibular flap is relatively common.

The Impact of Social Determinants of Health in Facial and Craniomaxillofacial Reconstruction: Can We Do Better?

Social determinants of health (SDOH) are integral to consider when delivering craniomaxillofacial and facial reconstructive care for patients. The American Cleft Palate-Craniofacial Association (ACPA) has instituted a formalized multidisciplinary care team model that recognizes such determinants and has aggregated patient-led organizations to strengthen patients' education and support system. This review discusses the need for all surgeons engaged in facial and craniomaxillofacial reconstruction to consider SDOH in their practice. Additionally, we explore how factors such as race, insurance status, education level, cost, and access to follow-up care, impact surgical care for craniosynostosis, facial trauma, orthognathic surgery, head and neck cancer, and facial paralysis. We propose that the ACPA team model be applied to other societies that care for the broader scope of patients in need of facial and craniomaxillofacial reconstruction to strengthen the communication, collaboration, and standardization of care delivery that is personalized to the needs of each patient.

Race-Based Differences in the Utilization and Timing of Secondary Cleft Procedures in the United States.

Primary CL/P repair, revisions, and secondary procedures-cleft rhinoplasty, speech surgery, and alveolar bone grafting (ABG)-performed from 2014-2018 were identified from the Pediatric National Surgical Quality Improvement Program (NSQIP) database. Utilization estimates were derived via univariable and multivariable logistic regression. A Kruskal-Wallis rank-sum test and multivariable linear regression were used to assess differences in timing for each procedure cohort.The primary outcome measures were the odds of a patient being a certain race/ethnicity, and the age at which patients of different race/ethnicity receive surgery.There were 23 780 procedures analyzed. After controlling for sex, diagnosis, and functional status, there were significant differences in utilization estimates across procedure groups. Primarily, utilization was lowest in patient who were Black for cleft rhinoplasty (OR = 0.70, P = .023), ABG (OR = 0.44, P < .001) and speech surgery (OR = 0.57, P = .012), and highest in patients who were Asian patients in all surgery cohorts (OR 2.05-4.43). Timing of surgery also varied by race, although differences were minimal. CONCLUSIONS: Estimates of utilization and timing of secondary cleft procedures varied by race, particularly among patients who were Black (poor utilization) or Asian (high utilization). Further studies should identify the causes and implications of underutilized and/or delayed cleft care.

Clinical Practice Trends and Postoperative Outcomes in Primary Cleft Rhinoplasty.

PURPOSE: Optimal correction of the cleft nasal deformity remains challenging. The purpose of this study was to examine the practice patterns and postoperative course of patients undergoing cleft lip repair with rhinoplasty compared to those who have primary lip repair without rhinoplasty. METHODS AND MATERIALS: A retrospective cohort study was conducted based on the Kids' Inpatient Database. Data were collected from January 2000 to December 2011 and included infants aged 12 months and younger who underwent cleft lip repair. The predictor variable was the addition of rhinoplasty at primary cleft lip repair. Primary outcome variables included hospital setting, year, and admission cost, while secondary outcome variables included length of stay and postoperative complication rate. Independent t-tests and chi-squared tests were performed. Continuous variables were analyzed by multiple linear regression models. RESULTS: The study sample included 4559 infants with 1422 (31.2%) who underwent primary cleft rhinoplasty. Over time, there was a significant increase in the proportion of cleft lip repairs accompanied by a rhinoplasty (p < .01). A greater proportion of patients with unilateral cleft lips received simultaneous rhinoplasty with their lip repairs (33.8 vs 26.0%, p < .01). This cohort had a significantly shorter length of stay (1.6 vs 2.8 days, p < .01) when compared to children that underwent cleft lip repair alone. CONCLUSIONS: Performing primary cleft rhinoplasty is becoming more common among cleft surgeons. Considering comparable costs and complication rates, a rhinoplasty should be considered during the surgical treatment planning of patients with cleft nasal deformities.

The Geographic Availability of Certified Cleft Care in the United States: A National Geospatial Analysis of 1-Hour Access to Care.

PURPOSE: Children with cleft lip and/or palate (CLP) require longitudinal multidisciplinary care. Travel distance to comprehensive cleft centers may be a barrier for some families. This study evaluated the geospatial availability of certified cleft teams across the United States. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A geographic catchment area within a 1-hour travel radius of each American Cleft Palate-Craniofacial Association-certified cleft center was mapped using TravelTime distance matrix programming. The proportion of children located within each catchment area was calculated using county-level data from the National Kids Count Data Center, with aggregate estimates of patients with CLP based on state-level data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. One-hour access was compared across regions and based on urbanization data collected from the US Census. RESULTS: There were 182 American Cleft Palate-Craniofacial Association-certified centers identified. As per study estimates, 28,331 (27.3%) children with CLP did not live within 1-hour travel distance to any center. One-hour access was highest in the Northeast (84.2% of children, P < .001) and lowest in the South (65.7%) and higher in states with the greatest urbanization in comparison with more rural states (85.1 vs 37.4%, P < .001). Similar patterns were seen for access to 2 or more cleft centers. The number of CLP children-per-center was highest in the West (775) and lowest in the Northeast (452). CONCLUSIONS: Travel distances of more than 1 hour may affect more than 25,000 (1 of 4) CLP children in the US, with significant variation across geographic regions. Future studies should seek to understand the impact of and provide strategies for overcoming geographic barriers.

Primary Cleft Palate Repair Among Older-Age Children and Adolescents in the United States.

PURPOSE: Older age cleft palate (CP) repair in international settings has been associated with increased surgical morbidity. This study assesses the prevalence and risks associated with late-age CP repair (age > 5 years) in the United States. METHODS: Primary CP repair patients less than the age of 18 years were identified in the National Surgical Quality Improvement pediatric database from 2012 to 2018. Total postoperative complications, readmissions, reoperations, duration of surgery, and length of stay were recorded. T-tests and χ2 analyses were used to compare variables between age groups 0-5, 6-10, and 11-17. RESULTS: A total of 10,022 primary CP procedures were identified from 2012 to 2018, of which 868 (8.6%) received repair at age > 5 years. Hispanic patients constituted a larger proportion of CP repair from ages 11 to 17 years than repair at other ages (P < .001). In comparison with children treated from ages 0 to 5 years, children operated on between ages 6 and 10 or 11 and 17 years experienced no increases in unplanned readmissions, reoperations, or complication rates after surgery. Patients of ages 6-10 years and 11-17 years had decreased operating room time (P < .001) compared with younger patients. Patients of ages 11-17 years also had decreased hospital length of stay (P = .04). CONCLUSIONS: Many children in the United States received primary CP repair after the age of 5 years likely due to late treatment of submucosal clefts or delayed care among international immigrants/adoptees. Old age procedures were not associated with increased short-term surgical morbidity in comparison with surgery at earlier time points. The causes and implications of older age primary surgery warrant further study.

Racial Disparities in Complications, Length of Stay, and Costs Among Patients Receiving Orthognathic Surgery in the United States.

INTRODUCTION: Black and Hispanic/Latino patients in the United States often experience poorer health outcomes in comparison to White patients. We aimed to assess the impact of race on complications, length of stay, and costs after orthognathic surgery. METHODS: Pediatric and young adult orthognathic surgeries (age <21) were isolated from the Kids Inpatient Database from 2000-2012. Procedures were grouped into cohorts based on the preoperative diagnosis: apnea, malocclusion, or congenital anomaly. T tests and χ2 analyses were employed to compare complications, length of stay (LOS), and costs among Black, Hispanic, Asian/Pacific Islander, and other patients in comparison to White patients. Multivariable regression was performed to identify associations between sociodemographic variables and the primary outcomes. Post-hoc χ2 analyses were performed to compare proportions of patients of a given race/ethnicity across the 3 surgical cohorts. RESULTS: There were 8,809 patients identified in the KID database (mean age of 16.3 years). Compared to White patients, complication rates were increased among Hispanic patients (2.1 vs 1.3%, P = .037) and other patients treated for apnea (8.7 vs 0.83%, P = .002). Hospital LOS was increased in both Black (3.3 vs 2.1 days, P < .001) and Hispanic (2.9 days, P < .001) patients. Costs were higher than Whites ($35,633.47) among Hispanic ($48,029.15, P < .001), Black ($47,034.41, P < .001), and Asian/Pacific-Islander ($44,192.49, P < .001) patients. White patients comprised a larger proportion of the malocclusion group (77.8%) than apnea (66.9%, P < .001) or congenital anomaly (59.1%, P < .001), while the opposite was true for Black, Hispanic, and Asian/Pacific-Islander patients. CONCLUSION: There are significant differences in complications, LOS, and costs after orthognathic surgery among patients of different race/ethnicity. Further studies are needed to better understand the causes of disparity and their clinical manifestations.

Morphological Basis for Airway Surgical Intervention in Apert Syndrome.

OBJECTIVE: Previous studies have explored the restricted nasopharyngeal airway in Apert syndrome patients. This study aims to investigate the segmented airway volume changes with age and directly analyze their correlations with subcranial dimensions and angulations. METHODS: Ninety-seven preoperative computed tomography scans (Apert, n = 44; control, n = 53) were included in this study, and divided into 5 age-related subgroups. Computed tomography scans were measured using Mimics and 3-matics software. RESULTS: Before 6 months of age, the nasal cavity in Apert syndrome is reduced by 47% (P = 0.002), which gradually approximates normal thereafter; however, there remained a 30% reduction, compared with controls. It is highly correlated with the anteroposterior length of subcranial space, and the position of maxilla and palate. The pharyngeal airway volume in Apert syndrome patients, younger than 6 months, was larger than normal by 129% (P = 0.013). However, between 2 and 6 years of age, the pharyngeal airway becomes smaller than normal, with a 57% (P = 0.010) reduction in childhood and 52% (P = 0.005) in adolescence. It is closely correlated with the intercondylar and intergonial widths. CONCLUSIONS: Airway compromise in Apert syndrome patients is attributable more to the nasal cavity in infants, but in the older child, it is the pharyngeal region. The restricted nasal airway in Apert syndrome is correlated with the subcranial space length and width, but independent of cranial base flexion. The pharyngeal airway volume in Apert syndrome is not as highly correlated with craniofacial morphology. Rather, it is impacted by the growth of mandible, which often requires surgical intervention later in childhood.