RECASTing racial coping stress in school: Self-efficacy as buffer for adolescent agency.

OBJECTIVE: The consequences of racism and racial stress on the academic and social well-being of adolescents are profound and well-documented. However, our understanding of how adolescents navigate racial stress and develop the agency to address discriminatory encounters, particularly in settings where educators struggle to intervene with microaggressions, remains limited. Research into the development of racial coping self-efficacy (RCSE) and coping skills has shown promise in enhancing the overall well-being of youth. In this study, we employ racial encounter coping appraisal and socialization theory (RECAST) to investigate the relationships among key school-based factors that influence how students cope with racial challenges. Specifically, we examine the role of RCSE, agency, stress, vigilance, and sense of belonging in the school environment for students. METHOD: Participants included 645 high school students from a diverse public school district who completed an online survey during a single class period. Analyses examined the mediating and moderating effects of RCSE, racial coping stress (RCS), and racial vigilance on agency. RESULTS: RCSE reduced the negative influence of RCS on student racial agency in resolving racial conflicts with teachers and peers, particularly for Latinx students. CONCLUSIONS: Implications for advancing RECAST-based interventions to help adolescents develop the agency to problem solve traumatic racial events in schools are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Ethnic-racial identity and ethnic-racial socialization competency: How minoritized parents "walk the talk".

OBJECTIVES: Ethnic-racial identity (ERI) has important implications for individual psychosocial functioning as well as familial processes. For example, parents' ERI can shape children's developmental contexts through ethnic-racial socialization (ERS). Yet, existing research has tended to focus on the content or frequency of socialization messages themselves rather than on internal factors like socialization competence. Such competence, as reflected through confidence, skills, and stress, represents critical dimensions that permeate the socialization process and can impact the delivery of messages. The present study examines whether parents' ERI (i.e., private regard, centrality, exploration) is related to perceptions of their socialization competence. METHOD: Data from 203 Black, 194 Asian American, and 188 Latinx parents (N = 585, Mage = 44.46 years, SD = 9.14, 59.70% mothers) of adolescents between the ages of 10-18 were collected via Qualtrics panels. RESULTS: Across all parents, private regard, centrality, and ethnic-racial exploration were positively associated with perceived confidence and skills in engaging in ERS. Regard was additionally associated with lower socialization stress. CONCLUSIONS: The results point to consistent benefits of ERI in helping parents navigate ERS, furthering the understanding of ERI's developmental implications through parents' comfort with and ability to "walk the talk" with their children. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Differentiating competency from content: Parental racial socialization profiles and their associated factors.

For Black parents, the racial socialization (RS) process represents a critical parenting practice. Although the field has historically focused on the content of parents' RS, it is also important to consider caregivers' perception of their competence to effectively teach their children to navigate their racialized world. The present study investigated patterns of RS by exploring 332 Black caregivers' report of both content and competency. Using Latent Profile Analysis (LPA), we identified three profiles of RS: Multifaceted & More Competent (MMC), Unengaged & Moderately Competent (UModC), and Negative, Stressed, & Less Competent (NSLC). Additionally, we explored the role of several previously established correlates of parental RS, including sociodemographic factors (i.e., age, gender, and socioeconomic status), caregiving status (e.g., mother, father, and aunt), and parents' race-related experiences (i.e., history of RS, racial identity, and experiences with racial discrimination). Generally, the NSLC profile consisted of caregivers who were younger than those in the other two profiles, while those in the UModC profile tended to have younger children, relatively. Interestingly, caregivers in the UmodC profile reported receiving significantly less RS in childhood and experienced less racial discrimination than those in the other two profiles. Numerous differences were found across profiles for dimensions of racial identity. The emergence of these varied profiles, as well as the identification of factors that differentiated them, extends our understanding of RS and highlights the importance of considering parents' notions of feeling confident, skillful, and less stressed as they navigate such a vital developmental process for their children.

Para los padres negros, el proceso de socialización racial (SR) representa una práctica fundamental de crianza. Aunque esta área históricamente se ha centrado en el contenido de la SR de los padres, también es importante tener en cuenta la percepción que tienen los cuidadores de su competencia para enseñarles eficazmente a sus hijos a orientarse en su mundo racializado. En el presente estudio se investigaron los patrones de SR analizando el informe de 332 cuidadores negros sobre contenido y competencia. Utilizando el análisis de perfiles latentes (APL), identificamos tres perfiles de SR: polifacéticos y más competentes (PMC), no comprometidos y moderadamente competentes (NCModC) y negativos, menos competentes y estresados (NMCE). Además, analizamos el papel que juegan varias correlaciones de SR de los padres previamente establecidas, incluidos los factores sociodemográficos, (p. ej., la edad, el género y la situación socioeconómica), la situación de cuidado (p. ej.: la madre, el padre, la tía) y las experiencias de los padres relacionadas con la raza (p. ej., los antecedentes de SR, la identidad racial, y las experiencias con la discriminación racial). Generalmente, el perfil NMCE estuvo compuesto por cuidadores que eran más jóvenes que los de los otros dos perfiles, mientras que los del perfil NCModC fueron propensos a tener hijos más pequeños, relativamente. De modo interesante, los cuidadores del perfil NCModC informaron haber recibido una SR considerablemente menor en la niñez y sufrieron menos discriminación racial que los de los otros dos perfiles. Se encontraron numerosas diferencias entre los perfiles con respecto a las dimensiones de identidad racial. El surgimiento de estos perfiles variados, así como la identificación de los factores que los diferenciaron, amplían nuestra comprensión de la SR y destacan la importancia de tener en cuenta las intenciones de los padres de sentirse seguros, habilidosos y menos estresados a medida que transitan este proceso tan fundamental del desarrollo para sus hijos.

Interrupting the Pathway From Discrimination to Black Adolescents' Psychosocial Outcomes: The Contribution of Parental Racial Worries and Racial Socialization Competency.

Racial discrimination can lead to psychosocial problems for Black adolescents, including internalization (e.g., depression) and externalization (e.g., conduct problems). Black parents (N = 186; Mage = 42.9) of adolescents (ages 10-18) were assessed to investigate how parental worries and racial socialization competency (i.e., confidence, skills, and stress) contribute to the association between parental discrimination experiences and their adolescents' psychosocial problems. Mediation analyses indicated that the total direct models with discrimination, worries, and problems had good fit, and that the addition of worry mediated the discrimination-problems association. Furthermore, racial socialization competency moderated the association between worry and problems, wherein greater competency was associated with less impact of worry on problems. Findings illuminate potential intervention targets for buffering discrimination's influence on adolescents' psychosocial functioning.

The initial development and validation of the Racial Socialization Competency Scale: Quality and quantity.

OBJECTIVES: The present study investigated the reliability and validity of the Racial Socialization Competency Scale (RaSCS). As posited by the Racial Encounter Coping Appraisal and Socialization Theory (RECAST), the RaSCS consists of 3 factors representing 3 novel dimensions of racial socialization competency present in families (e.g., stress, skills, and confidence). METHOD: Responses to the RaSCS were collected from 361 self-identified Black and African American parents and primary caretakers across the United States. RESULTS: After factor analysis, three scales and 27 items were maintained. Evidence was consistently found for 2 subscales within the stress dimension, namely "Call to Action" and "General" racial socialization stressors. Dimensions were also related to their respectively hypothesized constructs, including overall stress, racial socialization frequency, and self-efficacy. CONCLUSIONS: Future directions and recommendations on the measure's use, particularly in the context of interventions, are also discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Personal Versus Group Experiences of Racism and Risk of Delivering a Small-for-Gestational Age Infant in African American Women: a Life Course Perspective.

The majority of studies investigating the relationship between racism/racial discrimination and birth outcomes have focused on perceived experiences of racism/racial discrimination directed at oneself (personal racism). However, evidence suggests individuals report with greater frequency racism/racial discrimination directed at friends, family members, or other members of their racial/ethnic group (group racism). We examined how much African American (AA) women report lifetime experiences of perceived racism or racial discrimination, both personal and group, varied by maternal age. We also investigated whether reports of personal and group racism/racial discrimination were associated with the risk of delivering a small-for-gestational age (SGA) infant and how much maternal age in relation to developmental life stages (adolescence [≤ 18 years], emerging adulthood [19-24 years], and adulthood [≥ 25 years]) moderated the relationship. Data stem from the Baltimore Preterm Birth Study, a hybrid prospective/retrospective cohort study that enrolled 872 women between March 2000 and July 2004 (analyzed in 2016-2017). Spline regression analyses demonstrated a statistically significant (p value for overall association < 0.001) and non-linear (p value = 0.044) relationship between maternal age and the overall racism index. Stratified analysis showed experiences of racism overall was associated with a higher odds ratio of delivering an SGA infant among AA women aged ≥ 25 years (OR = 1.45, 95% CI 1.02-2.08). The overall racism index was not associated with the SGA infant odds ratio for emerging adults (OR = 0.86, 95% CI 0.69-1.06) or adolescents (OR = 0.92, 95% CI 0.66-1.28). Multiple aspects of racism and the intersection between racism and other contextual factors need to be considered.

EMBRace: Developing a Racial Socialization Intervention to Reduce Racial Stress and Enhance Racial Coping among Black Parents and Adolescents.

Researchers have illustrated the deleterious psychological effects that racial discrimination has exerted on Black Americans. The resulting racial stress and trauma (RST) from experiences with discrimination has been linked to negative wellness outcomes and trajectories for Black youth and families. Racial socialization (RS)-defined as the verbal and nonverbal messages that families use to communicate race to their children-can be a cultural strength and has been associated with positive outcomes in Black youth. Furthermore, the Racial Encounter Coping Appraisal and Socialization Theory (RECAST) encourages the frequent and competent use of RS between family members to cope with the negative impact of RST. Guided by RECAST, the purpose of this article is to describe the development of the Engaging, Managing, and Bonding through Race (EMBRace) intervention targeting the RS practices between Black adolescents and families. The authors explore current research on RST, discuss why traditional coping models for stress are inadequate for racially specific stressors, highlight RECAST as a burgeoning racial coping and socialization model, and describe how RS can be used as a tool to intervene within Black families. This is followed by a detailed description of the development and use of the EMBRace intervention which seeks to reduce RST through RS psychoeducation and practice, stress management, and the promotion of bonding in Black families. This article aims to serve as an example of a culturally relevant RS intervention for Black families who may benefit from clinical treatment for psychological distress from racially discriminatory encounters.

Los investigadores han ejemplificado los efectos psicológicos nocivos que han ejercido el racismo y la discriminación en los estadounidenses negros. El trauma y el estrés racial resultantes de las experiencias con la discriminación han estado ligados a los resultados y las trayectorias del bienestar negativo de los jóvenes negros y sus familias. La socialización racial - definida como los mensajes verbales y no verbales que usan las familias para comunicar la raza a sus hijos -puede ser una virtud cultural y se la ha asociado con resultados positivos en los jóvenes negros. Además, la "Teoría de socialización y apreciación para sobrellevar los encuentros raciales" (RECAST, por sus siglas en inglés) estimula el uso frecuente y competente de la socialización racial entre familiares para hacer frente al efecto negativo del trauma y el estrés raciales (Anderson & Stevenson, aceptado para publicación). Guiado por la RECAST, el propósito de este artículo es describir el desarrollo de la intervención denominada "Comprometerse, manejarse y vincularse por medio de la raza" (EMBRace) que aborda las practicas de socialización racial entre los adolescentes negros y las familias. Los autores analizan las investigaciones actuales acerca del trauma y el estrés raciales, debaten por qué los modelos tradicionales para sobrellevar el estrés son inadecuados para los factores desencadenantes de estrés específicos de la raza, destacan la RECAST como un modelo floreciente de socialización y afrontamiento racial y describen cómo la socialización racial puede usarse como herramienta para intervenir dentro de las familias negras. A esto le sigue una descripción detallada del desarrollo y el uso de la intervención EMBRace que apunta a reducir el trauma y el estrés raciales mediante la práctica y la psicoeducación sobre la socialización racial, el manejo del estrés y la promoción de los vínculos en las familias negras. Este artículo pretende servir como ejemplo de una intervención de socialización racial culturalmente relevante para familias negras que pueden beneficiarse del tratamiento clínico para el distrés psicológico originado por encuentros racialmente discriminatorios.

We got this: Evaluating racial socialization competency among diverse ethnic-racial groups.

Historically, research on racial socialization (RS) has centered on frequency, beliefs, and content of parent-child communications, with varied applications and implications across racial and ethnic subgroups. The Racial Socialization Competency Scale (RaSCS; Anderson et al., 2020) was developed to assess three dimensions of a novel construct, RS competency (confidence, skills, stress), among Black caregivers. In this article, we investigated the psychometric properties of the RaSCS across diverse ethnic-racial groups. Participants were 778 caregivers (Mage = 44.4 years) of youth between the ages of 10 and 18 recruited from across the United States. The sample was intentionally racially and ethnically diverse, with 26.1% identifying as Black, 24.2% identifying as Latinx, 24.9% identifying as Asian American, and 24.8% identifying as White. Confirmatory factor analyses replicated the previously identified structure of the RaSCS subscales, and scores were reliable. Multigroup measurement invariance analyses supported full scalar invariance across the four racial/ethnic subgroups for the Confidence, Skills, and General RS Stress subscales and partial scalar invariance for the Call to Action RS Stress subscale. These findings suggest that the RaSCS is an appropriate tool for assessing RS competency across racial and ethnic groups and that RS competency as a universal construct is relevant across groups. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Differences and similarities between ethnic-racial identity and critical consciousness links among diverse parents of color.

Parents of color's critical consciousness development (understanding of and actions to redress societal inequalities) is an important yet understudied area, especially relative to the burgeoning literature on youth's critical consciousness development. As with youth of color, ethnic-racial identity, or the meaning and importance placed on one's ethnic-racial group membership, likely plays a notable yet complex role in parents' critical consciousness. Specifically, parents' participation in activities that engage them in the culture of their racial-ethnic group (exploration), the importance they place on race-ethnicity (centrality), and their perceptions of how society views their group (public regard) may each be differentially associated with understanding of inequalities (critical reflection), motivation toward ending inequalities (critical motivation), and the behaviors parents engage in to address inequalities (critical action). Further, it is possible that associations may vary across racial-ethnic groups given different sociocultural histories, experiences (including immigrant experiences), and positionality within the United States. In the present study, we employ multigroup structural equation modeling among a sample of 203 Black, 193 Asian American, and 188 Latinx parents (total N = 584, Mage = 44.46, SD = 2.49, 59.6% mothers) of an adolescent child between the ages of 13 and 17 to examine associations between ethnic-racial identity and critical consciousness across groups. Results indicate highly complex, group-specific relations between identity and critical consciousness: public regard was most consistently predictive of critical consciousness dimensions among Black parents. Exploration and centrality were most predictive among Asian American and Latinx parents, respectively. Implications for relations between ethnic-racial identity and critical consciousness in light of different group experiences are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Not the Same Old Song and Dance: Viewing Racial Socialization Through a Family Systems Lens to Resist Racial Trauma.

Racial socialization has been a mainstay within the psychological literature for the past four decades, touted primarily as a protective factor buffering the negative effects of racism. How effective this factor is in preventing behavioral and emotional trauma and promoting resilience for Black and Brown families remains to be studied. While the literature has focused on family communication between parent and child, little attention has been paid to familial dynamics inherent within racial socialization processes. This paper seeks to advance the conversation of racial socialization as The Talk toward one that holds more promise toward the goal of resilience in the face of systemic racism. To do so, we offer a reframe of The Dance, drawing upon key aspects from the family- and multisystem-focused literatures (e.g., synergy, homeostasis, feedback, metacommunication) to expand and justify the utility, complexity, and efficacy of racial socialization among Black and Brown families as a resilient response to historical and contemporary systemic racism in American society. We include methodological and applied recommendations to promote resilience, resistance, and ultimately healing in the face of racial adversity and trauma.

Teaching Scared: Pre-Service Teacher Appraisals of Racial Stress, Socialization and Classroom Management Self-Efficacy.

The fears of pre-service teachers, particularly Teach for America (TFA) teachers. about working in urban classroom settings are framed as racial stress. Racial stress is the threat of well-being when one is unprepared to negotiate a race-related interpersonal encounter. Currently, there exist no measures on racial stress, socialization, and coping for teachers of African American and Latino students. Findings reveal that newly developed and reliable measures of teacher appraisal of racial/ethnic stressful interactions, socialization and coping are related to classroom management self-efficacy and school collegial racial conversations. These findings have implications for racial stress management as key to developing high quality teacher-student relationships.

Racial/ethnic socialization mediates perceived racism and the racial identity of African American adolescents.

Racism and racial/ethnic socialization are proposed as interactive risk and resilience factors that promote the development of multiple dimensions of racial identity among African American youth are the focus of this study. One-hundred and eight African American students responded to questions about their racial identity and socialization. Controlling for demographic characteristics of ecological support (from family, friends, and neighbors), neighborhood racial composition, and gender, findings revealed that racism exposure significantly explained the variance of several racial identity components and ideologies but that racial/ethnic socialization mediated that influence. We discuss the implications for future study of racism experience on the racial identity development of African American youth.

RECASTing racial stress and trauma: Theorizing the healing potential of racial socialization in families.

For youth and adults of color, prolonged exposure to racial discrimination may result in debilitating psychological, behavioral, and health outcomes. Research has suggested that race-based traumatic stress can manifest from direct and vicarious discriminatory racial encounters (DREs) that impact individuals during and after an event. To help their children prepare for and prevent the deleterious consequences of DREs, many parents of color utilize racial socialization (RS), or communication about racialized experiences. Although RS research has illuminated associations between RS and youth well-being indicators (i.e., psychosocial, physiological, academic, and identity-related), findings have mainly focused on RS frequency and endorsement in retrospective accounts and not on how RS is transmitted and received, used during in-the-moment encounters, or applied to reduce racial stress and trauma through clinical processes. This article explores how systemic and interpersonal DREs require literate, active, and bidirectional RS to repair from race-based traumatic stress often overlooked by traditional stress and coping models and clinical services. A novel theory (Racial Encounter Coping Appraisal and Socialization Theory [RECAST]), wherein RS moderates the relationship between racial stress and self-efficacy in a path to coping and well-being, is advanced. Greater RS competency is proposed as achievable through intentional and mindful practice. Given heightened awareness to DREs plaguing youth, better understanding of how RS processes and skills development can help youth and parents heal from the effects of past, current, and future racial trauma is important. A description of proposed measures and RECAST's use within trauma-focused clinical practices and interventions for family led healing is also provided. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Addressing the Mental Health Needs of Black American Youth and Families: A Case Study from the EMBRace Intervention.

Black American youth are vulnerable to the consequences of repeated exposure to racial discrimination, particularly through hampered coping abilities and greater internalizing and externalizing problems. One way in which Black American parents have protected their children from these deleterious consequences is through racial socialization, or communication regarding aspects of racialized experiences and contexts. Less is known, however, about the potential therapeutic benefits of racial socialization via clinical intervention. The five-week Engaging, Managing, and Bonding through Race (EMBRace) racial socialization intervention was developed to enhance coping strategies for parents and adolescents and reduce adolescent internalizing and externalizing problems. The purpose of this study is to describe a case study of one family through a mixed methods approach. Variables of interest included racial discrimination, racial socialization, coping, and psychological well-being. Quantitative and qualitative assessments were performed two weeks prior to and one week after the implementation of EMBRace, with qualitative data collected throughout the intervention. Results indicate a developing sense of coping for the adolescent and parent and reduced adolescent psychosocial problems despite increased racialized stress. Results will be used to further investigate the hypotheses proposed in the pilot with a powered sample, and future studies will explore how sociodemographic and biopsychosocial variables relate to policy recommendations, program implementation, and psychosocial outcomes.

Parents' ethnic-racial socialization practices: a review of research and directions for future study.

Recently, there has been an emergence of literature on the mechanisms through which parents transmit information, values, and perspectives about ethnicity and race to their children, commonly referred to as racial or ethnic socialization. This literature has sought to document the nature of such socialization, its antecedents in parents' and children's characteristics and experiences, and its consequences for children's well-being and development. In this article, the authors integrate and synthesize what is known about racial and ethnic socialization on the basis of current empirical research, examining studies concerning its nature and frequency; its child, parent, and ecological predictors; and its consequences for children's development, including ethnic identity, self-esteem, coping with discrimination, academic achievement, and psychosocial well-being. The authors also discuss conceptual and methodological limitations of the literature and suggest directions for future research.