Ultrahard bulk amorphous carbon from collapsed fullerene.

Amorphous materials inherit short- and medium-range order from the corresponding crystal and thus preserve some of its properties while still exhibiting novel properties1,2. Due to its important applications in technology, amorphous carbon with sp2 or mixed sp2-sp3 hybridization has been explored and prepared3,4, but synthesis of bulk amorphous carbon with sp3 concentration close to 100% remains a challenge. Such materials inherit the short-/medium-range order of diamond and should also inherit its superior properties5. Here, we successfully synthesized millimetre-sized samples-with volumes 103-104 times as large as produced in earlier studies-of transparent, nearly pure sp3 amorphous carbon by heating fullerenes at pressures close to the cage collapse boundary. The material synthesized consists of many randomly oriented clusters with diamond-like short-/medium-range order and possesses the highest hardness (101.9 ± 2.3 GPa), elastic modulus (1,182 ± 40 GPa) and thermal conductivity (26.0 ± 1.3 W m-1 K-1) observed in any known amorphous material. It also exhibits optical bandgaps tunable from 1.85 eV to 2.79 eV. These discoveries contribute to our knowledge about advanced amorphous materials and the synthesis of bulk amorphous materials by high-pressure and high-temperature techniques and may enable new applications for amorphous solids.

Negative Volume Compressibility in Sc3N@C80-Cubane Cocrystal with Charge Transfer.

According to the laws of thermodynamics, materials normally exhibit contraction or expansion along the directions of the applied pressure or tension. Here, we show that a man-made cocrystal of a metallofullerene and highly energetic cubane, with strained sp3 bonding, may exhibit an anomalous negative volume compressibility. In this cocrystal, the freely rotating fullerene Sc3N@C80 acts as a structural building block while static cubane molecules fill the lattice interstitial sites. Under high pressure, Sc3N@C80 keeps stable and preserves the crystalline framework of the materials, while the cubane undergoes a progressive configurational transformation above 6.5 GPa, probably promoted by charge transfer from fullerene to cubane. A further configurational change of the cubane into a low-density configuration at higher pressure results in an anomalous pressure-driven lattice expansion of the cocrystal (∼1.8% volume expansion). Such unusual negative compressibility has previously only been predicted by theory and suggested to appear in mechanical metamaterials.

Decompression-Induced Diamond Formation from Graphite Sheared under Pressure.

Graphite is known to transform into diamond under dynamic compression or under combined high pressure and high temperature, either by a concerted mechanism or by a nucleation mechanism. However, these mechanisms fail to explain the recently reported discovery of diamond formation during ambient temperature compression combined with shear stress. Here we report a new transition pathway for graphite to diamond under compression combined with shear, based on results from both theoretical simulations and advanced experiments. In contrast to the known model for thermally activated diamond formation under pressure, the shear-induced diamond formation takes place during the decompression process via structural transitions. At a high pressure with large shear, graphite transforms into ultrastrong sp^{3} phases whose structures depend on the degree of shear stress. These metastable sp^{3} phases transform into either diamond or graphite upon decompression. Our results explain several recent experimental observations of low-temperature diamond formation. They also emphasize the importance of shear stress for diamond formation, providing new insight into the graphite-diamond transformation mechanism.

Instability and thermal conductivity of pressure-densified and elastically altered orientational glass of Buckminsterfullerene.

We report on the temperature, pressure, and time (T, p, and t)-dependent features of thermal conductivity, κ, of partially ordered, non-equilibrium state of C60-OG, the orientational glass of Buckminsterfullerene (at T below the orientational freezing temperature Tog) made more unstable (i) by partially depressurizing its high-p formed state to elastically expand it and (ii) by further pressurizing that state to elastically contract it. The sub-Tog effects observed on heating of C60-OG differ from those of glasses because phonon propagation depends on the ratio of two well-defined orientational states of C60 molecules and the density of the solid. A broad peak-like feature appears at T near Tog in the κ-T plots of C60-OG formed at 0.7 GPa, depressurized to 0.2 GPa and heated at 0.2 GPa, which we attribute to partial overlap of the sub-Tog and Tog features. A sub-Tog local minimum appears in the κ-T plots at T well below Tog of C60-OG formed at 0.1 GPa, pressurized to 0.5 GPa and heated at 0.5 GPa and it corresponds to the state of maximum disorder. Although Buckminsterfullerene is regarded as an orientationally disordered crystal, variation of its properties with T and p is qualitatively different from other such crystals. We discuss the findings in terms of the nature of its disorder, sensitivity of its rotational dynamics to temperature, and the absence of the Johari-Goldstein relaxation. All seem to affect the phenomenology of its glass-like transition.

Novel Superhard sp

Design and synthesis of new carbon allotropes have always been important topics in condensed matter physics and materials science. Here we report a new carbon allotrope, formed from cold-compressed C_{70} peapods, which most likely can be identified with a fully sp^{3}-bonded monoclinic structure, here named V carbon, predicted from our simulation. The simulated x-ray diffraction pattern, near K-edge spectroscopy, and phonon spectrum agree well with our experimental data. Theoretical calculations reveal that V carbon has a Vickers hardness of 90 GPa and a bulk modulus ∼400 GPa, which well explains the "ring crack" left on the diamond anvils by the transformed phase in our experiments. The V carbon is thermodynamically stable over a wide pressure range up to 100 GPa, suggesting that once V carbon forms, it is stable and can be recovered to ambient conditions. A transition pathway from peapod to V carbon has also been suggested. These findings suggest a new strategy for creating new sp^{3}-hybridized carbon structures by using fullerene@nanotubes carbon precursor containing odd-numbered rings in the structures.

Calorimetric measurements on Li4C60 and Na4C60.

We show specific heat data for Na4C60 and Li4C60 in the range 0.4-350 K for samples characterized by Raman spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction. At high temperatures, the two different polymer structures have very similar specific heats both in absolute values and in general trend. The specific heat data are compared with data for undoped polymeric and pristine C60. At high temperatures, a difference in specific heat between the intercalated and undoped C60 polymers of 100 J K(-1) mol(-1) is observed, in agreement with the Dulong-Petit law. At low temperatures, the specific heat data for Li4C60 and Na4C60 are modified by the stiffening of vibrational and librational molecular motion induced by the polymer bonds. The covalent twin bonds in Li4C60 affect these motions to a somewhat higher degree than the single intermolecular bonds in Na4C60. Below 1 K, the specific heats of both materials become linear in temperature, as expected from the effective dimensionality of the structure. The contribution to the total specific heat from the inserted metal ions can be well described by Einstein functions with TE = 386 K for Li4C60 and TE = 120 K for Na4C60, but for both materials we also observe a Schottky-type contribution corresponding to a first approximation to a two-level system with ΔE = 9.3 meV for Li4C60 and 3.1 meV for Na4C60, probably associated with jumps between closely spaced energy levels inside "octahedral-type" ionic sites. Static magnetic fields up to 9 T had very small effects on the specific heat below 10 K.

Doping of charge-transfer molecules in cocrystals for the design of materials with novel piezo-activated luminescence.

A novel piezo-activated luminescent material with wide range modulation of the luminescence wavelength and a giant intensity enhancement upon compression was prepared using a strategy of molecular doping. The doping of THT molecules into TCNB-perylene cocrystals results in the formation of a weak but pressure-enhanced emission center in the material at ambient pressure. Upon compression, the emissive band from the undoped component TCNB-perylene undergoes a normal red shift and emission quenching, while the weak emission center shows an anomalous blue shift from 615 nm to 574 nm and a giant luminescence enhancement up to 16 GPa. Further theoretical calculations show that doping by THT could modify intermolecular interactions, promote molecular deformation, and importantly, inject electrons into the host TCNB-perylene upon compression, which contributes to the novel piezochromic luminescence behavior. Based on this finding, we further propose a universal approach to design and regulate the piezo-activated luminescence of materials by using other similar dopants.

Enhancement of short/medium-range order and thermal conductivity in ultrahard sp3 amorphous carbon by C70 precursor.

As an advanced amorphous material, sp3 amorphous carbon exhibits exceptional mechanical, thermal and optical properties, but it cannot be synthesized by using traditional processes such as fast cooling liquid carbon and an efficient strategy to tune its structure and properties is thus lacking. Here we show that the structures and physical properties of sp3 amorphous carbon can be modified by changing the concentration of carbon pentagons and hexagons in the fullerene precursor from the topological transition point of view. A highly transparent, nearly pure sp3-hybridized bulk amorphous carbon, which inherits more hexagonal-diamond structural feature, was synthesized from C70 at high pressure and high temperature. This amorphous carbon shows more hexagonal-diamond-like clusters, stronger short/medium-range structural order, and significantly enhanced thermal conductivity (36.3 ± 2.2 W m-1 K-1) and higher hardness (109.8 ± 5.6 GPa) compared to that synthesized from C60. Our work thus provides a valid strategy to modify the microstructure of amorphous solids for desirable properties.

Rotational dynamics of confined C60 from near-infrared Raman studies under high pressure.

Peapods present a model system for studying the properties of dimensionally constrained crystal structures, whose dynamical properties are very important. We have recently studied the rotational dynamics of C(60) molecules confined inside single walled carbon nanotube (SWNT) by analyzing the intermediate frequency mode lattice vibrations using near-infrared Raman spectroscopy. The rotation of C(60) was tuned to a known state by applying high pressure, at which condition C(60) first forms dimers at low pressure and then forms a single-chain, nonrotating, polymer structure at high pressure. In the latter state the molecules form chains with a 2-fold symmetry. We propose that the C(60) molecules in SWNT exhibit an unusual type of ratcheted rotation due to the interaction between C(60) and SWNT in the "hexagon orientation," and the characteristic vibrations of ratcheted rotation becomes more obvious with decreasing temperature.

Molecular insertion regulates the donor-acceptor interactions in cocrystals for the design of piezochromic luminescent materials.

Developing a universal strategy to design piezochromic luminescent materials with desirable properties remains challenging. Here, we report that insertion of a non-emissive molecule into a donor (perylene) and acceptor (1,2,4,5-tetracyanobezene) binary cocrystal can realize fine manipulation of intermolecular interactions between perylene and 1,2,4,5-tetracyanobezene (TCNB) for desirable piezochromic luminescent properties. A continuous pressure-induced emission enhancement up to 3 GPa and a blue shift from 655 to 619 nm have been observed in perylene-TCNB cocrystals upon THF insertion, in contrast to the red-shifted and quenched emission observed when compressing perylene-TCNB cocrystals and other cocrystals reported earlier. By combining experiment with theory, it is further revealed that the inserted non-emissive THF forms blue-shifting hydrogen bonds with neighboring TCNB molecules and promote a conformation change of perylene molecules upon compression, causing the blue-shifted and enhanced emission. This strategy remains valid when inserting other molecules as non-emissive component into perylene-TCNB cocrystals for abnormal piezochromic luminescent behaviors.

Cation size and anion anisotropy in structural chemistry of metal borohydrides. the peculiar pressure evolution of RbBH(4).

The pressure evolution of RbBH(4) has been characterized by synchrotron powder X-ray diffraction and Raman spectroscopy up to 23 GPa. Diffraction experiments at ambient temperature reveal three phase transitions, at 3.0, 10.4, and 18 GPa (at 2.6, 7.8, and approximately 20 GPa from Raman data), at which the space group symmetry changes in the order Fm-3m(Z=4) --> P4/nmm(2) --> C222(2) --> I-42m(4). Crystal structures and equations of state are reported for all four phases. The three high-pressure structure types are new in the crystal chemistry of borohydrides. RbBH(4) polymorphs reveal high coordination numbers (CNs) for cation and anion sites, increasing with pressure from 6 to 8, via an intermediate 4 + 4 coordination. Different arrangements of the tetrahedral BH(4) group in the Rb environment define the crystal symmetries of the RbBH(4) polymorphs. The structural evolution in the MBH(4) series is determined by the cation's size, as it differs drastically for M = Li (CNs = 4, 6), Na (CN = 6), and Rb. The only structure common to the whole MBH(4) family is the cubic one. Its bulk modulus linearly decreases as the ionic radius of M increases, indicating that the compressibility of the material is mainly determined by the repulsive BH(4)...BH(4) interactions.

Pressure-induced insertion of liquid alcohols into graphite oxide structure.

Graphite oxide (GO) immersed in an excess of methanol and ethanol media is found to undergo a phase transformation at about 0.2-0.8 GPa, with an expansion of the unit cell volume by approximately 40%, due to pressure-induced insertion of solvent into interlayer space. The pressure at which the structural expansion occurs does not correlate with the solidification pressure of the alcohol, in contrast to the graphite oxide/water system. The expanded high-pressure phase of GO/ethanol could be quenched back to ambient pressure. Compression of graphite oxide with a 2:1 water/methanol medium revealed a complex anomaly with two steps attributed to insertion of methanol and water at different pressure points.

High-temperature superconductivity in sulfur hydride evidenced by alternating-current magnetic susceptibility.

The search for high-temperature superconductivity is one of the research frontiers in physics. In the sulfur hydride system, an extremely high T c (∼200 K) has been recently developed at pressure. However, the Meissner effect measurement above megabar pressures is still a great challenge. Here, we report the superconductivity identification of sulfur hydride at pressure, employing an in situ alternating-current magnetic susceptibility technique. We determine the superconducting phase diagram, finding that superconductivity suddenly appears at 117 GPa and T c reaches 183 K at 149 GPa before decreasing monotonically with increasing pressure. By means of theoretical calculations, we elucidate the variation of T c in the low-pressure region in terms of the changing stoichiometry of sulfur hydride and the further decrease in T c owing to a drop in the electron-phonon interaction parameter λ. This work provides a new insight into clarifying superconducting phenomena and anchoring the superconducting phase diagram in the hydrides.

New Ordered Structure of Amorphous Carbon Clusters Induced by Fullerene-Cubane Reactions.

As a new category of solids, crystalline materials constructed with amorphous building blocks expand the structure categorization of solids, for which designing such new structures and understanding the corresponding formation mechanisms are fundamentally important. Unlike previous reports, new amorphous carbon clusters constructed ordered carbon phases are found here by compressing C8 H8 /C60 cocrystals, in which the highly energetic cubane (C8 H8 ) exhibits unusual roles as to the structure formation and transformations under pressure. The significant role of C8 H8 is to stabilize the boundary interactions of the highly compressed or collapsed C60 clusters which preserves their long-range ordered arrangement up to 45 GPa. With increasing time at high pressure, the gradual random bonding between C8 H8 and carbon clusters, due to "energy release" of highly compressed cubane, leads to the loss of the ability of C8 H8 to stabilize the carbon cluster arrangement. Thus a transition from short-range disorder to long-range disorder (amorphization) occurs in the formed material. The spontaneous bonding reconstruction most likely results in a 3D network in the material, which can create ring cracks on diamond anvils.

Individual prediction of treatment outcome in patients with temporomandibular disorders. A quality improvement model.

The general aim of this thesis was to create and evaluate a quality improvement model for prediction of treatment outcome in patients diagnosed with Temporomandibular Disorders (TMD) of either Muscle or Mainly TMJ (Temporomandibular Joint) origin, treated with interocclusal appliances and/or occlusal adjustment. The model was assumed to generate negative predictors of treatment outcome through evaluating all patients predicted Good reaching an objective treatment goal but not having an improvement of 50% or more. The model was created and evaluated by one TMD specialist. The questions were: (I) Was it possible for the TMD specialist to predict treatment outcome individually in patients diagnosed with TMD and, from the results, create a quality improvement model? (II) Was it possible for eight TMD-trained general dental practitioners, under the supervision of the TMD specialist, to treat TMD patients with similar results to the TMD specialist if the TMD specialist had examined, treatment planned, and individually predicted the treatment outcome? (III) Was it possible for the TMD specialist to improve the possibility to predict individual treatment outcome overtime? (IV) Was it possible for one TMD-trained general dental practitioner to copy the clinical part of the model and achieve the same results as the TMD specialist, in patients selected by the TMD specialist? Out of 5165 patients subjected to a functional examination of the masticatory system, 3602 were diagnosed with TMD and subgrouped as either Muscle or Mainly TMJ symptoms. The patients were predicted to have a Good, Dubious, or Poor possibility to have an improvement of 50% or more after treatment. Patients predicted Poor were not offered any treatment. A correct prediction of actual treatment outcome Good was defined as an improvement of 50% or more for muscle and/or TMJ symptoms. A total of 2625 patients began treatment at the specialist clinic for TMD and 2128 completed the full course of treatment. The patients were treated with counseling, interocclusal appliances and/or occlusal adjustment. Treatment outcome was evaluated at an objective treatment goal as improvement in percent using a verbal Numeric Rating Scale ranging from 0 to 100. The results suggest that (I) individual treatment outcome can be predicted in patients with TMD treated by one specialist in TMD and a quality improvement model could be created, (II) eight TMD-trained general dental practitioners could, under the supervision of the TMD specialist, treat TMD patients with similar results to the TMD specialist, (III) the TMD specialist could improve the possibility to predict individual treatment outcome over time, and (IV) the clinical part of the model could be copied by one TMD-trained general dental practitioner with similar results to the TMD specialist. In conclusion, the model works in the hand of one TMD specialist and the clinical part for one general dental practitioner, but it needs to be evaluated by other clinics/clinicians before it can be claimed to be generalizable. The model has identified new negative predictors for treatment outcome in patients with TMD. These predictors need to be investigated further in well controlled clinical trials. The created model is a PDSA cycle.

Comparison of individual prediction of treatment outcome made by a TMD specialist and a TMD-trained general dental practitioner in patients with temporomandibular disorders.

The aim of this study was to investigate if a TMD-trained general dental practitioner could individually predict actual treatment outcome in selected patients diagnosed with temporomandibular disorders (TMD) with similar results as a TMD specialist. The patients were examined, individually predicted, treatment planned, treated and had their treatment outcome evaluated by the therapist, respectively. Out of 2618 patients referred to a TMD specialist clinic, 1086 patients started treatment. They were all divided into Muscle or Mainly TMJ symptoms. Prediction of the treatment outcome as Good or Dubious was based on the patient's history, the clinical and, sometimes, radiological findings. The degree of improvement was graded using a Numeric Rating Scale 0-100. A clinical important improvement, defined as an improvement of initial complaints of 50% or more, was judged as a correct prediction of Good treatment outcome. Seven-hundred-sixty-nine patients treated by the TMD specialist (Sample 1) was compared with 164 patients treated by the TMD-trained general dental practitioner (Sample 2). For patients with Muscle symptoms in Sample 1, a 50% improvement or more was reached by 93% of those predicted Good and 57% of those predicted Dubious. The corresponding figures in Sample 2 were 100% and 82%, respectively. In Sample 1, patients with Mainly TMJ symptoms reached a 50% improvement or more in 94% of those with prediction Good and 73% of those predicted Dubious. In Sample 2 the figures were 100% and 87%, respectively. ATMD-trained general dental practitioner could individually predict treatment outcome with similar results as a TMD specialist in selected patients diagnosed with TMD. Whether the method is possible to generalize has to be investigated further.

Photoluminescence changes of C70 nano/submicro-crystals induced by high pressure and high temperature.

Hollow C70 nano/submicro-crystals with a fcc lattice structure were treated under various high pressure and high temperature conditions. The energy band structure was visibly changed by the high pressure and high temperature treatment, and the luminescence of the treated C70 nano/submicro-crystals were tuned from the visible to the near infrared range. In-situ high pressure experiments at room temperature indicate that pressure plays a key role in the tuning of the band gap and PL properties in C70 nanocrystals, and temperature plays an important role in the formation of stable intermolecular bonds and thus to define the final red-shift of the PL peaks. The polymeric phases of C70 nanocrystals treated at high pressure and high temperature were identified from their Raman spectra, which showed a change from monomers to a dimer-rich phase and finally to a phase containing larger, disordered C70 oligomers.

Synthesis of C59Hx and C58Hx fullerenes stabilized by hydrogen.

Prolonged hydrogenation of C(60) molecules by reaction with H(2) at elevated temperature and pressure results in fragmentation and collapse of the fullerene cage structure. However, fragments can be preserved by immediate termination of dangling bonds by hydrogen. Here we demonstrate that not only fullerene fragments but also hydrogenated fragmented fullerenes (e.g., C(58)H(40) and C(59)H(40)) can be synthesized in bulk amount by high-temperature hydrogenation of C(60). We confirm successful synthesis of these species by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry and complete speciation of the resultant complex fullerene mixtures by high-resolution field desorption/ionization Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry.

Composition of hydrofullerene mixtures produced by C(60) reaction with hydrogen gas revealed by high-resolution mass spectrometry.

Complex solid hydrofulleride mixtures were synthesized by prolonged hydrogenation of C(60) at 120 bar hydrogen pressure, 673 K temperature, and different reaction periods. The high degree of hydrogenation was confirmed by infrared spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction. The identity of hydrogenation products was determined by high-resolution field desorption/ionization Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry. Despite partial gas-phase fragmentation of hydrofullerene ions during mass analysis, the data suggest that the synthesized mixtures consist of mostly C(58-60)H(x) hydrofullerenes. Increasing the duration of hydrogenation results in synthesis of C(59)H(x) and C(58)H(x) as major products. Possible hydrofullerene fragmentation pathways during both material synthesis and mass spectrometric analysis are discussed. Gas-phase fragmentation in the mass spectrometer arises from hydrofullerene ions C(60)H(x)(+) with x > 40 and C(59)H(44)(+) with drastically decreased molecular stability relative to the known C(60)H(36).

Structural Deformation of Sm@C88 under High Pressure.

We have studied the structural transformation of Sm@C88 under pressure up to 18 GPa by infrared spectroscopy combined with theoretical simulations. The infrared-active vibrational modes of Sm@C88 at ambient conditions have been assigned for the first time. Pressure-induced blue and red shifts of the corresponding vibrational modes indicate an anisotropic deformation of the carbon cage upon compression. We propose that the carbon cage changes from ellipsoidal to approximately spherical around 7 GPa. A smaller deformation of the carbon bonds in the area close to the Sm atom in the cage suggests that the trapped Sm atom plays a role in minimizing the compression of the adjacent bonds. Pressure induced a significant reduction of the band gap of the crystal. The HOMO-LUMO gap of the Sm@C88 molecule decreases remarkably at 7 GPa as the carbon cage is deformed. Also, compression enhances intermolecular interactions and causes a widening of the energy bands. Both effects decrease the band gap of the sample. The carbon cage deforms significantly above 7 GPa, from spherical to a peanut-like shape and collapses at 18 GPa.