Thyroid hormone receptor beta mutations alter photoreceptor development and function in Danio rerio (zebrafish).

We investigate mutations in trß2, a splice variant of thrb, identifying changes in function, structure, and behavior in larval and adult zebrafish retinas. Two N-terminus CRISPR mutants were identified. The first is a 6BP+1 insertion deletion frameshift resulting in a truncated protein. The second is a 3BP in frame deletion with intact binding domains. ERG recordings of isolated cone signals showed that the 6BP+1 mutants did not respond to red wavelengths of light while the 3BP mutants did respond. 6BP+1 mutants lacked optomotor and optokinetic responses to red/black and green/black contrasts. Both larval and adult 6BP+1 mutants exhibit a loss of red-cone contribution to the ERG and an increase in UV-cone contribution. Transgenic reporters show loss of cone trß2 activation in the 6BP+1 mutant but increase in the density of cones with active blue, green, and UV opsin genes. Antibody reactivity for red-cone LWS1 and LWS2 opsin was absent in the 6BP+1 mutant, as was reactivity for arrestin3a. Our results confirm a critical role for trß2 in long-wavelength cone development.

Uncoupling of neurogenesis and differentiation during retinal development.

Conventionally, neuronal development is regarded to follow a stereotypic sequence of neurogenesis, migration, and differentiation. We demonstrate that this notion is not a general principle of neuronal development by documenting the timing of mitosis in relation to multiple differentiation events for bipolar cells (BCs) in the zebrafish retina using in vivo imaging. We found that BC progenitors undergo terminal neurogenic divisions while in markedly disparate stages of neuronal differentiation. Remarkably, the differentiation state of individual BC progenitors at mitosis is not arbitrary but matches the differentiation state of post-mitotic BCs in their surround. By experimentally shifting the relative timing of progenitor division and differentiation, we provide evidence that neurogenesis and differentiation can occur independently of each other. We propose that the uncoupling of neurogenesis and differentiation could provide neurogenic programs with flexibility, while allowing for synchronous neuronal development within a continuously expanding cell pool.

Defect patterns on the curved surface of fish retinae suggest a mechanism of cone mosaic formation.

The outer epithelial layer of zebrafish retinae contains a crystalline array of cone photoreceptors, called the cone mosaic. As this mosaic grows by mitotic addition of new photoreceptors at the rim of the hemispheric retina, topological defects, called "Y-Junctions", form to maintain approximately constant cell spacing. The generation of topological defects due to growth on a curved surface is a distinct feature of the cone mosaic not seen in other well-studied biological patterns like the R8 photoreceptor array in the Drosophila compound eye. Since defects can provide insight into cell-cell interactions responsible for pattern formation, here we characterize the arrangement of cones in individual Y-Junction cores as well as the spatial distribution of Y-junctions across entire retinae. We find that for individual Y-junctions, the distribution of cones near the core corresponds closely to structures observed in physical crystals. In addition, Y-Junctions are organized into lines, called grain boundaries, from the retinal center to the periphery. In physical crystals, regardless of the initial distribution of defects, defects can coalesce into grain boundaries via the mobility of individual particles. By imaging in live fish, we demonstrate that grain boundaries in the cone mosaic instead appear during initial mosaic formation, without requiring defect motion. Motivated by this observation, we show that a computational model of repulsive cell-cell interactions generates a mosaic with grain boundaries. In contrast to paradigmatic models of fate specification in mostly motionless cell packings, this finding emphasizes the role of cell motion, guided by cell-cell interactions during differentiation, in forming biological crystals. Such a route to the formation of regular patterns may be especially valuable in situations, like growth on a curved surface, where the resulting long-ranged, elastic, effective interactions between defects can help to group them into grain boundaries.

Neurotransmission plays contrasting roles in the maturation of inhibitory synapses on axons and dendrites of retinal bipolar cells.

Neuronal output is modulated by inhibition onto both dendrites and axons. It is unknown whether inhibitory synapses at these two cellular compartments of an individual neuron are regulated coordinately or separately during in vivo development. Because neurotransmission influences synapse maturation and circuit development, we determined how loss of inhibition affects the expression of diverse types of inhibitory receptors on the axon and dendrites of mouse retinal bipolar cells. We found that axonal GABA but not glycine receptor expression depends on neurotransmission. Importantly, axonal and dendritic GABAA receptors comprise distinct subunit compositions that are regulated differentially by GABA release: Axonal GABAA receptors are down-regulated but dendritic receptors are up-regulated in the absence of inhibition. The homeostatic increase in GABAA receptors on bipolar cell dendrites is pathway-specific: Cone but not rod bipolar cell dendrites maintain an up-regulation of receptors in the transmission deficient mutants. Furthermore, the bipolar cell GABAA receptor alterations are a consequence of impaired vesicular GABA release from amacrine but not horizontal interneurons. Thus, inhibitory neurotransmission regulates in vivo postsynaptic maturation of inhibitory synapses with contrasting modes of action specific to synapse type and location.

Spectrum of Fates: a new approach to the study of the developing zebrafish retina.

The ability to image cells live and in situ as they proliferate and differentiate has proved to be an invaluable asset to biologists investigating developmental processes. Here, we describe a Spectrum of Fates approach that allows the identification of all the major neuronal subtypes in the zebrafish retina simultaneously. Spectrum of Fates is based on the combinatorial expression of differently coloured fluorescent proteins driven by the promoters of transcription factors that are expressed in overlapping subsets of retinal neurons. Here, we show how a Spectrum of Fates approach can be used to assess various aspects of neural development, such as developmental waves of differentiation, neuropil development, lineage tracing and hierarchies of fates in the developing zebrafish retina.

Cone photoreceptor types in zebrafish are generated by symmetric terminal divisions of dedicated precursors.

Proper functioning of sensory systems requires the generation of appropriate numbers and proportions of neuronal subtypes that encode distinct information. Perception of color relies on signals from multiple cone photoreceptor types. In cone-dominated retinas, each cone expresses a single opsin type with peak sensitivity to UV, long (L) (red), medium (M) (green), or short (S) (blue) wavelengths. The modes of cell division generating distinct cone types are unknown. We report here a mechanism whereby zebrafish cone photoreceptors of the same type are produced by symmetric division of dedicated precursors. Transgenic fish in which the thyroid hormone receptor ß2 (trß2) promoter drives fluorescent protein expression before L-cone precursors themselves are produced permitted tracking of their division in vivo. Every L cone in a local region resulted from the terminal division of an L-cone precursor, suggesting that such divisions contribute significantly to L-cone production. Analysis of the fate of isolated pairs of cones and time-lapse observations suggest that other cone types can also arise by symmetric terminal divisions. Such divisions of dedicated precursors may help to rapidly attain the final numbers and proportions of cone types (L > M, UV > S) in zebrafish larvae. Loss- and gain-of-function experiments show that L-opsin expression requires trß2 activity before cone differentiation. Ectopic expression of trß2 after cone differentiation produces cones with mixed opsins. Temporal differences in the onset of trß2 expression could explain why some species have mixed, and others have pure, cone types.

Ancient origin of the rod bipolar cell pathway in the vertebrate retina.

Vertebrates rely on rod photoreceptors for vision in low-light conditions. The specialized downstream circuit for rod signalling, called the primary rod pathway, is well characterized in mammals, but circuitry for rod signalling in non-mammals is largely unknown. Here we demonstrate that the mammalian primary rod pathway is conserved in zebrafish, which diverged from extant mammals ~400 million years ago. Using single-cell RNA sequencing, we identified two bipolar cell types in zebrafish that are related to mammalian rod bipolar cell (RBCs), the only bipolar type that directly carries rod signals from the outer to the inner retina in the primary rod pathway. By combining electrophysiology, histology and ultrastructural reconstruction of the zebrafish RBCs, we found that, similar to mammalian RBCs, both zebrafish RBC types connect with all rods in their dendritic territory and provide output largely onto amacrine cells. The wiring pattern of the amacrine cells postsynaptic to one RBC type is strikingly similar to that of mammalian RBCs and their amacrine partners, suggesting that the cell types and circuit design of the primary rod pathway emerged before the divergence of teleost fish and mammals. The second RBC type, which forms separate pathways, was either lost in mammals or emerged in fish.

Ancient origin of the rod bipolar cell pathway in the vertebrate retina.

Vertebrates rely on rod photoreceptors for vision in low-light conditions. Mammals have a specialized downstream circuit for rod signaling called the primary rod pathway, which comprises specific cell types and wiring patterns that are thought to be unique to this lineage. Thus, it has been long assumed that the primary rod pathway evolved in mammals. Here, we challenge this view by demonstrating that the mammalian primary rod pathway is conserved in zebrafish, which diverged from extant mammals ~400 million years ago. Using single-cell RNA-sequencing, we identified two bipolar cell (BC) types in zebrafish that are related to mammalian rod BCs (RBCs) of the primary rod pathway. By combining electrophysiology, histology, and ultrastructural reconstruction of the zebrafish RBCs, we found that, like mammalian RBCs, both zebrafish RBC types connect with all rods in their dendritic territory, and provide output largely onto amacrine cells. The wiring pattern of the amacrine cells post-synaptic to one RBC type is strikingly similar to that of mammalian RBCs, suggesting that the cell types and circuit design of the primary rod pathway have emerged before the divergence of teleost fish and amniotes. The second RBC type, which forms separate pathways, is either lost in mammals or emerged in fish.

Ancient origin of the rod bipolar cell pathway in the vertebrate retina.

Vertebrates rely on rod photoreceptors for vision in low-light conditions1. Mammals have a specialized downstream circuit for rod signaling called the primary rod pathway, which comprises specific cell types and wiring patterns that are thought to be unique to this lineage2-6. Thus, it has been long assumed that the primary rod pathway evolved in mammals3,5-7. Here, we challenge this view by demonstrating that the mammalian primary rod pathway is conserved in zebrafish, which diverged from extant mammals ~400 million years ago. Using single-cell RNA-sequencing, we identified two bipolar cell (BC) types in zebrafish that are related to mammalian rod BCs (RBCs) of the primary rod pathway. By combining electrophysiology, histology, and ultrastructural reconstruction of the zebrafish RBCs, we found that, like mammalian RBCs8, both zebrafish RBC types connect with all rods and red-cones in their dendritic territory, and provide output largely onto amacrine cells. The wiring pattern of the amacrine cells post-synaptic to one RBC type is strikingly similar to that of mammalian RBCs. This suggests that the cell types and circuit design of the primary rod pathway may have emerged before the divergence of teleost fish and amniotes (mammals, bird, reptiles). The second RBC type in zebrafish, which forms separate pathways from the first RBC type, is either lost in mammals or emerged in fish to serve yet unknown roles.

In vivo development of outer retinal synapses in the absence of glial contact.

Astroglia secrete factors that promote synapse formation and maintenance. In culture, glial contact has also been shown to facilitate synaptogenesis. Here, we examined whether glial contact is important for establishing circuits in vivo by simultaneously monitoring differentiation of glial cells and local synaptogenesis over time. Photoreceptor circuits of the vertebrate retina are particularly suitable for this study because of the relatively simple, laminar organization of their connectivity with their target neurons, horizontal cells and bipolar cells. Also, individual photoreceptor terminals are ensheathed within the outer plexiform layer (OPL) by the processes of one type of glia, Müller glia cells (MGs). We conducted in vivo time-lapse multiphoton imaging of the rapidly developing and relatively transparent zebrafish retina to ascertain the time course of MG development relative to OPL synaptogenesis. The emergence of synaptic triads, indicative of functional photoreceptor circuits, and structural association with glial processes were also examined across ages by electron microscopy. We first show that MG processes form territories that tile within the inner and outer synaptic layers. We then demonstrate that cone photoreceptor synapses are assembled before the elaboration of MG processes in the OPL. Using a targeted cell ablation approach, we also determined whether the maintenance of photoreceptor synapses is perturbed when local MGs are absent. We found that removal of MGs had no appreciable effect on the stability of newly formed cone synapses. Thus, in contrast to other CNS circuits, contact from glia is not necessary for the formation or immediate stabilization of outer retinal synapses.

Notch-mediated re-specification of neuronal identity during central nervous system development.

Neuronal identity has long been thought of as immutable, so that once a cell acquires a specific fate, it is maintained for life.1 Studies using the overexpression of potent transcription factors to experimentally reprogram neuronal fate in the mouse neocortex2,3 and retina4,5 have challenged this notion by revealing that post-mitotic neurons can switch their identity. Whether fate reprogramming is part of normal development in the central nervous system (CNS) is unclear. While there are some reports of physiological cell fate reprogramming in invertebrates,6,7 and in the vertebrate peripheral nervous system,8 endogenous fate reprogramming in the vertebrate CNS has not been documented. Here, we demonstrate spontaneous fate re-specification in an interneuron lineage in the zebrafish retina. We show that the visual system homeobox 1 (vsx1)-expressing lineage, which has been associated exclusively with excitatory bipolar cell (BC) interneurons,9-12 also generates inhibitory amacrine cells (ACs). We identify a role for Notch signaling in conferring plasticity to nascent vsx1 BCs, allowing suitable transcription factor programs to re-specify them to an AC fate. Overstimulating Notch signaling enhances this physiological phenotype so that both daughters of a vsx1 progenitor differentiate into ACs and partially differentiated vsx1 BCs can be converted into ACs. Furthermore, this physiological re-specification can be mimicked to allow experimental induction of an entirely distinct fate, that of retinal projection neurons, from the vsx1 lineage. Our observations reveal unanticipated plasticity of cell fate during retinal development.

Conditional and biased regeneration of cone photoreceptor types in the zebrafish retina.

A major challenge in regenerative medicine is replacing cells lost through injury or disease. While significant progress has been made, much remains unknown about the accuracy of native regenerative programs in cell replacement. Here, we capitalized on the regenerative capacity and stereotypic retinal organization of zebrafish to determine the specificity with which retinal Müller glial cells replace lost neuronal cell types. By utilizing a targeted genetic ablation technique, we restricted death to all or to distinct cone photoreceptor types (red, blue, or UV-sensitive cones), enabling us to compare the composition of cones that are regenerated. We found that Müller glia produce cones of all types upon nondiscriminate ablation of these photoreceptors, or upon selective ablation of red or UV cones. Pan-ablation of cones led to regeneration of the various cone types in relative abundances that resembled those of nonablated controls, that is, red > green > UV ~ blue cones. Moreover, selective loss of red or UV cones biased production toward the cone type that was ablated. In contrast, ablation of blue cones alone largely failed to induce cone production at all, although it did induce cell division in Müller glia. The failure to produce cones upon selective elimination of blue cones may be due to their low abundance compared to other cone types. Alternatively, it may be that blue cone death alone does not trigger a change in progenitor competency to support cone genesis. Our findings add to the growing notion that cell replacement during regeneration does not perfectly mimic programs of cell generation during development.

Genetically Encoded Fluorescent Indicator GRAPHIC Delineates Intercellular Connections.

Intercellular contacts are essential for precise organ morphogenesis, function, and maintenance; however, spatiotemporal information of cell-cell contacts or adhesions remains elusive in many systems. We developed a genetically encoded fluorescent indicator for intercellular contacts with optimized intercellular GFP reconstitution using glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor, GRAPHIC (GPI anchored reconstitution-activated proteins highlight intercellular connections), which can be used for an expanded number of cell types. We observed a robust GFP signal specifically at the interface between cultured cells, without disrupting natural cell contact. Application of GRAPHIC to the fish retina specifically delineated cone-bipolar connection sites. Moreover, we showed that GRAPHIC can be used in the mouse central nervous system to delineate synaptic sites in the thalamocortical circuit. Finally, we generated GRAPHIC color variants, enabling detection of multiple convergent contacts simultaneously in cell culture system. We demonstrated that GRAPHIC has high sensitivity and versatility, which will facilitate the analysis of the complex multicellular connections without previous limitations.

Cadherin-8 is required for the first relay synapses to receive functional inputs from primary sensory afferents for cold sensation.

Classic cadherins, comprising multiple subtypes, mediate selective cell-cell adhesion based on their subtype-specific binding nature. Each subtype in the brain is expressed by restricted groups of functionally connected nuclei and laminas. However, whether each subtype has any specific role in neural circuitry remains largely unknown. Here, we show that cadherin-8 (cad8), a type-II classic cadherin, is important for cold sensation, whose circuitry is established by projection of sensory neurons into the spinal cord. Cad8 was expressed by a subset of neurons in the dorsal horn (DH) of the spinal cord, as well as by a small number of neurons in the dorsal root ganglia (DRGs), and the majority of cad8-positive DRG neurons coexpressed cold temperature/menthol receptor (TRPM8). We generated cad8 knock-out mice and analyzed lacZ markers expressed by the targeted cad8 locus using heterozygous mice. LacZ/cad8-expressing sensory neurons and DH neurons were connected together, and cad8 protein was localized around the synaptic junctions formed between them. This relation was, however, not disrupted in cad8-/- mice. We performed whole-cell patch-clamp recordings from DH neurons in spinal cord slices, in combination with menthol stimulation as a tool to excite central terminals of primary afferents expressing TRPM8. LacZ-expressing DH neurons exhibited fast and slow miniature EPSCs. Menthol selectively increased the frequency of the slow mEPSCs in cad8+/- slices, but this effect was abolished in cad8-/- slices. The cad8-/- mice also showed a reduced sensitivity to cold temperature. These results demonstrate that cad8 is essential for establishing the physiological coupling between cold-sensitive sensory neurons and their target DH neurons.

Cadherins in neuronal morphogenesis and function.

Classic cadherins represent a family of calcium-dependent homophilic cell-cell adhesion molecules. They confer strong adhesiveness to animal cells when they are anchored to the actin cytoskeleton via their cytoplasmic binding partners, catenins. The cadherin/catenin adhesion system plays key roles in the morphogenesis and function of the vertebrate and invertebrate nervous systems. In early vertebrate development, cadherins are involved in multiple events of brain morphogenesis including the formation and maintenance of the neuroepithelium, neurite extension and migration of neuronal cells. In the invertebrate nervous system, classic cadherin-mediated cell-cell interaction plays important roles in wiring among neurons. For synaptogenesis, the cadherin/catenin system not only stabilizes cell-cell contacts at excitatory synapses but also assembles synaptic molecules at synaptic sites. Furthermore, this system is involved in synaptic plasticity. Recent studies on the role of individual cadherin subtypes at synapses indicate that individual cadherin subtypes play their own unique role to regulate synaptic activities.

Glutamatergic Monopolar Interneurons Provide a Novel Pathway of Excitation in the Mouse Retina.

Excitatory and inhibitory neurons in the CNS are distinguished by several features, including morphology, transmitter content, and synapse architecture [1]. Such distinctions are exemplified in the vertebrate retina. Retinal bipolar cells are polarized glutamatergic neurons receiving direct photoreceptor input, whereas amacrine cells are usually monopolar inhibitory interneurons with synapses almost exclusively in the inner retina [2]. Bipolar but not amacrine cell synapses have presynaptic ribbon-like structures at their transmitter release sites. We identified a monopolar interneuron in the mouse retina that resembles amacrine cells morphologically but is glutamatergic and, unexpectedly, makes ribbon synapses. These glutamatergic monopolar interneurons (GluMIs) do not receive direct photoreceptor input, and their light responses are strongly shaped by both ON and OFF pathway-derived inhibitory input. GluMIs contact and make almost as many synapses as type 2 OFF bipolar cells onto OFF-sustained A-type (AOFF-S) retinal ganglion cells (RGCs). However, GluMIs and type 2 OFF bipolar cells possess functionally distinct light-driven responses and may therefore mediate separate components of the excitatory synaptic input to AOFF-S RGCs. The identification of GluMIs thus unveils a novel cellular component of excitatory circuits in the vertebrate retina, underscoring the complexity in defining cell types even in this well-characterized region of the CNS.

Presynaptic partner selection during retinal circuit reassembly varies with timing of neuronal regeneration in vivo.

Whether neurons can restore their original connectivity patterns during circuit repair is unclear. Taking advantage of the regenerative capacity of zebrafish retina, we show here the remarkable specificity by which surviving neurons reassemble their connectivity upon regeneration of their major input. H3 horizontal cells (HCs) normally avoid red and green cones, and prefer ultraviolet over blue cones. Upon ablation of the major (ultraviolet) input, H3 HCs do not immediately increase connectivity with other cone types. Instead, H3 dendrites retract and re-extend to contact new ultraviolet cones. But, if regeneration is delayed or absent, blue-cone synaptogenesis increases and ectopic synapses are made with red and green cones. Thus, cues directing synapse specificity can be maintained following input loss, but only within a limited time period. Further, we postulate that signals from the major input that shape the H3 HC's wiring pattern during development persist to restrict miswiring after damage.

Neuronal remodeling in retinal circuit assembly, disassembly, and reassembly.

Developing neuronal circuits often undergo a period of refinement to eliminate aberrant synaptic connections. Inappropriate connections can also form among surviving neurons during neuronal degeneration. The laminar organization of the vertebrate retina enables synaptic reorganization to be readily identified. Synaptic rearrangements are shown to help sculpt developing retinal circuits, although the mechanisms involved remain debated. Structural changes in retinal diseases can also lead to functional rewiring. This poses a major challenge to retinal repair because it may be necessary to untangle the miswired connections before reconnecting with proper synaptic partners. Here, we review our current understanding of the mechanisms that underlie circuit remodeling during retinal development, and discuss how alterations in connectivity during damage could impede circuit repair.

Transmission from the dominant input shapes the stereotypic ratio of photoreceptor inputs onto horizontal cells.

Many neurons receive synapses in stereotypic proportions from converging but functionally distinct afferents. However, developmental mechanisms regulating synaptic convergence are not well understood. Here we describe a heterotypic mechanism by which one afferent controls synaptogenesis of another afferent, but not vice versa. Like other CNS circuits, zebrafish retinal H3 horizontal cells (HC) undergo an initial period of remodelling, establishing synapses with ultraviolet and blue cones while eliminating red and green cone contacts. As development progresses, the HCs selectively synapse with ultraviolet cones to generate a 5:1 ultraviolet-to-blue cone synapse ratio. Blue cone synaptogenesis increases in mutants lacking ultraviolet cones, and when transmitter release or visual stimulation of ultraviolet cones is perturbed. Connectivity is unaltered when blue cone transmission is suppressed. Moreover, there is no cell-autonomous regulation of cone synaptogenesis by neurotransmission. Thus, biased connectivity in this circuit is established by an unusual activity-dependent, unidirectional control of synaptogenesis exerted by the dominant input.

Synaptojanin 1 is required for endolysosomal trafficking of synaptic proteins in cone photoreceptor inner segments.

Highly polarized cells such as photoreceptors require precise and efficient strategies for establishing and maintaining the proper subcellular distribution of proteins. The signals and molecular machinery that regulate trafficking and sorting of synaptic proteins within cone inner segments is mostly unknown. In this study, we show that the polyphosphoinositide phosphatase Synaptojanin 1 (SynJ1) is critical for this process. We used transgenic markers for trafficking pathways, electron microscopy, and immunocytochemistry to characterize trafficking defects in cones of the zebrafish mutant, nrc(a14) , which is deficient in phosphoinositide phosphatase, SynJ1. The outer segments and connecting cilia of nrc(a14) cone photoreceptors are normal, but RibeyeB and VAMP2/synaptobrevin, which normally localize to the synapse, accumulate in the nrc(a14) inner segment. The structure of the Endoplasmic Reticulum in nrc(a14) mutant cones is normal. Golgi develop normally, but later become disordered. Large vesicular structures accumulate within nrc(a14) cone photoreceptor inner segments, particularly after prolonged incubation in darkness. Cone inner segments of nrc (a14) mutants also have enlarged acidic vesicles, abnormal late endosomes, and a disruption in autophagy. This last pathway also appears exacerbated by darkness. Taken altogether, these findings show that SynJ1 is required in cones for normal endolysosomal trafficking of synaptic proteins.