Notes from the Field: Increase in Coccidioidomycosis - California, 2016.

Coccidioidomycosis, or Valley Fever, is an infectious disease caused by inhalation of Coccidioides spp. spores (1). This soil-dwelling fungus is endemic in the southwestern United States, with most (97%) U.S. cases reported from Arizona and California (1,2). Following an incubation period of 1-3 weeks, symptomatic patients most often experience self-limited, influenza-like symptoms, but coccidioidomycosis also can lead to severe pulmonary disease and to rare cases of disseminated disease, including meningitis (1). Those at increased risk for severe disease include persons of African or Filipino descent, pregnant women, adults in older age groups, and persons with weakened immune systems (1). In 2016, a large increase in coccidioidomycosis incidence was observed in California compared with previous years (3). Using data reported by health care providers and laboratories via local health departments to the California Department of Public Health as of May 9, 2017, incidence rates were calculated by estimated year of illness onset as the number of confirmed coccidioidomycosis cases per 100,000 population (3). Estimated year of illness onset was extracted from the closest date to the time when symptoms first appeared for each patient. From 1995, when coccidioidomycosis became an individually reportable disease in California, to 2009, annual incidence rates ranged from 1.9 to 8.4 per 100,000, followed by a substantial increase to 11.9 per 100,000 in 2010 and a peak of 13.8 per 100,000 in 2011 (Figure). Annual rates decreased during 2012-2014, but increased in 2016 to 13.7 per 100,000, with 5,372 reported cases, the highest annual number of cases in California recorded to date.

Coccidioidomycosis-associated hospitalizations, California, USA, 2000-2011.

In the past decade, state-specific increases in the number of reported cases of coccidioidomycosis have been observed in areas of California and Arizona where the disease is endemic. Although most coccidioidomycosis is asymptomatic or mild, infection can lead to severe pulmonary or disseminated disease requiring hospitalization and costly disease management. To determine the epidemiology of cases and toll of coccidioidomycosis-associated hospitalizations in California, we reviewed hospital discharge data for 2000-2011. During this period, there were 25,217 coccidioidomycosis-associated hospitalizations for 15,747 patients and >$2 billion US in total hospital charges. Annual initial hospitalization rates increased from 2.3 initial hospitalizations/100,000 population in 2000 to 5.0 initial hospitalizations/100,000 population in 2011. During this period, initial hospitalization rates were higher for men than women, African Americans and Hispanics than Whites, and older persons than younger persons. In California, the increasing health- and cost-related effects of coccidioidomycosis-associated hospitalizations are a major public health challenge.

Impact of 2003 state regulation on raw oyster-associated Vibrio vulnificus illnesses and deaths, California, USA.

US vibriosis rates have increased since 1996, and many Vibrio vulnificus infections are fatal. In April 2003, California implemented a regulation restricting the sale of raw oysters harvested from the Gulf of Mexico during April 1-October 31, unless they were processed to reduce V. vulnificus to nondetectable levels. We analyzed California cases of V. vulnificus infection before and after the regulation's implementation and compared case data with data from other states. The annual number of reported V. vulnificus infections and deaths in California with patient's sole exposure to raw oysters dropped from 0 to 6 cases and 0 to 5 deaths per year during 1991-2002, before implementation, to 0 during 2003-2010, after implementation (p = 0.0005 for both). In other states, median annual numbers of similar cases and deaths increased slightly after 2002. The data strongly suggest that the 2003 regulation led to a significant reduction in reported raw oyster-associated V. vulnificus illnesses and deaths.

Timeliness and follow-up patterns of cervical cancer detection in a cohort of medically underserved California women.

INTRODUCTION: This study examines factors associated with timely follow-up after Pap test in a program providing cervical cancer detection services to medically underserved California women. METHODS: Data between 01 January 1992 and 30 June 2007 were analyzed. Cox proportional hazard regression was used to identify subgroups of women with delayed time to diagnosis or treatment scheduling. The probability of being scheduled for final diagnosis and treatment was assessed using logistic regression analysis. Demographic and clinical characteristics of the women lost to follow up were examined. RESULTS: Time from screening to final diagnosis scheduling differed according to age group, race/ethnicity, and Pap test result. Race/ethnicity and age were associated with whether treatment was scheduled or not. While loss to follow up among those scheduled for final diagnosis was associated with certain patients' characteristics, no such association was found among those who were scheduled for treatment. CONCLUSIONS: Patient's demographic characteristics determine the odds of being scheduled for final diagnosis and treatment as well as timeliness of follow-up from screening to final diagnosis. Findings suggest that the dual goal of reducing health disparities and cost-effective detection and treatment of precancerous disease to prevent cervical cancers cannot be achieved without consideration of racial/ethnic differences and needs.

Applying the small-area estimation method to estimate a population eligible for breast cancer detection services.

INTRODUCTION: Populations eligible for public health programs are often narrowly defined and, therefore, difficult to describe quantitatively, particularly at the local level, because of lack of data. This information, however, is vital for program planning and evaluation. We demonstrate the application of a statistical method using multiple sources of data to generate county estimates of women eligible for free breast cancer screening and diagnostic services through California's Cancer Detection Programs: Every Woman Counts. METHODS: We used the small-area estimation method to determine the proportion of eligible women by county and racial/ethnic group. To do so, we included individual and community data in a generalized, linear, mixed-effect model. RESULTS: Our method yielded widely varied estimated proportions of service-eligible women at the county level. In all counties, the estimated proportion of eligible women was higher for Hispanics than for whites, blacks, Asian/Pacific Islanders, or American Indian/Alaska Natives. Across counties, the estimated proportions of eligible Hispanic women varied more than did those of women of other races. CONCLUSION: The small-area estimation method is a powerful tool for approximating narrowly defined eligible or target populations that are not represented fully in any one data source. The variability and reliability of the estimates are measurable and meaningful. Public health programs can use this method to estimate the size of local populations eligible for, or in need of, preventive health services and interventions.

Disparities of Shigellosis Rates among California Children by Race/Ethnicity and Census Tract Poverty Level, 2000-2010.

BACKGROUND: We examined surveillance data for disparities in shigellosis rates among children by census tract (CT) poverty level and race/ethnicity in California. METHODS: We geocoded addresses of 9740 children younger than 15 years of age from 2000-2010 California shigellosis surveillance data and calculated incidence rate (IR) per 100,000 population by age group and race/ethnicity. We linked geocoded cases to 2006-2010 American Community Survey CT-level poverty data and used IR ratios to compare children in the most impoverished CTs with those in the least impoverished CTs. The contribution of socioeconomic inequalities to age-standardized racial and ethnic disparities was explored using Poisson regression. RESULTS: Per 100,000 population, shigellosis IR was highest among California children less than 5 years old (16.4) and of Hispanic ethnicity (15.2). The age-standardized IR was 22.3 per 100,000 person-years in CTs with more than 40% of the population below the poverty line and 4.1 per 100,000 person-years in CTs with less than 5% of the population below the poverty line, an IR ratio of 5.8 (95% confidence interval: 5.2, 6.5). CONCLUSIONS: Shigellosis rates among California children were highest among Hispanics and increased with CT poverty.

Patient and clinical site factors associated with rescreening behavior among older multiethnic, low-income women.

PURPOSE: Our goal was to identify factors predictive of mammography rescreening within 18 months of baseline screening in multiethnic, low-income older women. DESIGN AND METHODS: We interviewed a cross-sectional survey of staff of 102 randomly selected clinics that provided screening and diagnostic services. We also surveyed a random sample of 391 older women served by these clinics to retrospectively assess their experiences of the screening process. RESULTS: We found that 59% of the sample returned for a repeat mammogram. Education level and the belief it is important to get an annual mammogram were significant patient-level predictors of rescreening. Offering pap smears and using hands-on demonstrations with breast models were significant clinic-level variables predictive of rescreening. Of note, among the variables that did not prove significant in the final model were those reflecting ethnicity and income. IMPLICATIONS: Individual and health-care-delivery-system factors play important roles in the obtaining of regular mammograms by low-income women. These findings highlight the importance of both factors in improving rescreening rates among older women.

Role of Pap Test terminology and age in the detection of carcinoma invasive and carcinoma in situ in medically underserved California women.

Our goals were to evaluate Pap Test findings classified by the Bethesda system, and follow up biopsies from participants in the California Breast and Cervical Cancer Control Program (Ca-BCCCP) for: 1) correlation in the detection of carcinoma in situ (CIS) and carcinoma invasive (CI), and 2) age-related trends, with discussion in the context of the 2001 ASCCP Management Guidelines. Women (n = 52,339) who had their initial screening Pap Tests with Ca-BCCCP between January 1995-December 1999 were followed for diagnostic services through December 2000. Descriptive and analytical methods were used in the analysis. Of the Pap results, 81.9% were negative, 10.6% showed infection, 4.7% showed an epithelial abnormality as defined by the Bethesda system (atypical squamous cells of undetermined significance (ASCUS), low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion (LSIL), or high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion (HSIL)), 0.1% showed squamous-cell cancer (SCC), and 2.7% showed other or unsatisfactory. Subsequent to the initial Pap Test, follow-up results of carcinoma in situ (CIS) and carcinoma invasive (CI) accounted for 0.36% and 0.05% of the population, respectively. Among HSIL Pap Tests (n = 285), 40.7% had follow-up showing CIS. Among SCC Pap Tests, 17.9% had follow-up results of CIS and 28.6% CI. Of the 191 patients with CIS as a follow-up finding, the initial Pap smear showed: HSIL 60.7%, SCC 2.6%, LSIL 10.5%, ASCUS 13.6%, and negative or infection 9.9%. Of the 27 patients with CI, the initial Pap Test showed: HSIL 40.7%, SCC 29.6%, LSIL 7.4%, ASCUS 7.4%, and negative or infection 11.1%. Pap diagnoses of other or unsatisfactory accounted for 2.6% of the Pap results from patients with CIS and 3.7% of Pap results from patients with CI. Except for LSIL, there was an increasing age trend in the number of cases in each of Pap results, with the exception of age 65+ yr. However, the ratio of LSIL and ASCUS to negative cases decreased with age. (P < 0.0001 and 0.0293, respectively). HSIL Pap results indicate a reasonably high probability of CIS and CI. However, approximately 1/3 of patients with CIS and 1/4 of patients with CI presented with Pap diagnoses of less severity than HSIL. When a negative Pap Test result is chosen as reference group, there is a negative age trend for LSIL and ASCUS, and no age trend for other results. These findings all have important implications in the design of follow-up strategies, and support the 2001 ASCCP Consensus Guidelines for the Management of Women with Cervical Abnormalities.

Mammography rescreening among women of diverse ethnicities: patient, provider, and health care system factors.

This study identified patient, provider, and health care system factors that influenced mammography rescreening among non-insured, racial/ethnic minority women. Data were collected using a stratified-clustered random sample survey of 1,050 women of five racial/ethnic groups (Latina, Chinese, Filipina, African American, and Caucasian) and 102 primary care clinical sites. Women received screening services through two no-cost screening programs in California. Chi-square tests were used to assess bivariate associations and multiple logistic regressions were used to compute adjusted odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals. Mammography rescreening was associated with living in the United States longer; having higher education levels, better health care access, a history of breast problems, and favorable perceptions of mammography; obtaining regular Pap screening and hormone replacement therapy; having had better communication with clinicians; and attending clinics that conducted in-reach activities. This study suggests that simply removing financial barriers is not enough to improve mammography rescreening among underserved women.

Kawasaki syndrome and factors associated with coronary artery abnormalities in California.

BACKGROUND: Kawasaki syndrome (KS) occurs in children <18 years of age and is the leading cause of acquired heart disease among children in the United States. Understanding the epidemiology of KS and factors associated with coronary artery abnormalities (CAA) may lead to timely diagnosis and treatment of KS and could limit CAA. METHODS: Epidemiologic characteristics, including risk factors for the development of CAA, among KS and incomplete KS patients <18 years of age with onset during 2000-2009 reported by the California Department of Public Health to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's national KS surveillance system were analyzed. RESULTS: A total of 2056 KS and incomplete KS patients <18 years of age were reported during 2000-2009. The median age of patients was 2 years; 60% of patients were male. Of 1818 patients with race information reported, 56% were white and 28% were Asian/Pacific Islander. Ninety-eight percent of patients received intravenous immunoglobulin. Of 1843 patients with information on cardiac complications, 89 (5%) had coronary artery aneurysms and 341 (19%) had CAA. Characteristics associated with the occurrence of CAA in KS patients were male sex, Asian/Pacific Islander race, age <1 year or 9-17 years, and not receiving intravenous immunoglobulin treatment before the fifth day of illness. CONCLUSIONS: This study suggests that intravenous immunoglobulin treatment before the fifth day of illness may reduce CAA among KS patients. Timely diagnosis and treatment of KS continue to be important in reducing the occurrence of cardiac complications.

The public health impact of coccidioidomycosis in Arizona and California.

The numbers of reported cases of coccidioidomycosis in Arizona and California have risen dramatically over the past decade, with a 97.8% and 91.1% increase in incidence rates from 2001 to 2006 in the two states, respectively. Of those cases with reported race/ethnicity information, Black/African Americans in Arizona and Hispanics and African/Americans in California experienced a disproportionately higher frequency of disease compared to other racial/ethnic groups. Lack of early diagnosis continues to be a problem, particularly in suspect community-acquired pneumonia, underscoring the need for more rapid and sensitive tests. Similarly, the inability of currently available therapeutics to reduce the duration and morbidity of this disease underscores the need for improved therapeutics and a preventive vaccine.

Impact of ASC-H terminology on the detection of HSILs in medically underserved California women.

In this study we evaluated CDP: EWC, a large public health screening program for low-income women to determine whether the ASC-H term, introduced in the 2001 revision to the Bethesda System, has facilitated the detection of the most serious precancerous cervical lesions such as CIN-II-III/CIS, including accuracy of detection and minimizing diagnostic delays. Pap test and biopsy data from the period 2003-2006 were compared with those from 1995-1999, and included analysis of a subset of rarely and never-screened for each study period. More ASC-H Pap tests were followed by CIN-II+ biopsies (20%) than ASCUS Pap tests (5%). Thirteen percent of ASC-H showed CIN-III/CIS on follow-up biopsy. Following the introduction of ASC-H, negative and LSIL Pap tests followed by CIN-III/CIS biopsies decreased from 5.6% to 0.37% and 9.2% to 4.4%, respectively. Fewer CIN-III/CIS cases were preceded by Pap tests with negative and ASCUS results in 2003-2005 as compared with 1995-1999. The number of days from screening to diagnosis for women aged 25-39 years with ASC-H Pap test results (58 days) was less than for ASCUS results (78 days) for the current study period. In this high-risk multi-ethnic population, ASC-H more effectively communicates equivocal findings likely to represent HSIL leading to more rapid follow-up. The incidence of CIN-II or CIN-III/CIS following ASC-H Pap tests is lower than generally appreciated for this population, including for rarely or never-screened high-risk women. Fewer CIN-III/CIS lesions were detected following negative and ASCUS Pap results. Compliance with follow-up is less than ideal for this population.

Adherence to recent screening mammography among Latinas: findings from the California Women's Health Survey.

OBJECTIVES: Latinas are less likely than other racial/ethnic groups to engage in mammography rescreening, but little research has examined why Latinas overdue for screening have not had a mammogram recently. This study investigates the factors that affect adherence to screening mammography guidelines among previously screened Latinas. METHODS: Data are from a population-based, random-digit-dial annual probability survey of California women. Participants included 1298 Latinas aged > or =40 who ever had a mammogram. Multivariate logistic regression was used to examine what factors differentiate adherence to recent screening (having a mammogram < or =2 years ago) from being overdue for screening (having a last mammogram >2 years ago). Perceived barriers to screening were also examined among women overdue for a mammogram. Relationships between self-reported perceived barriers to screening and the identified differentiating factors were assessed using chi-square tests. RESULTS: Adherence to recent mammography was reported by 83.9% of previously screened Latinas. When controlling for significant covariates, factors associated with adherence to recent screening included being aged 50-64, having a college education, preferring to interview in Spanish, having health insurance, and reporting a usual source of care (p < 0.05). Lack of affordability was the most frequently cited perceived barrier to screening among Latinas overdue for screening. Age, education, health insurance, and usual source of care were significantly associated with specific perceived barriers to screening mammography. CONCLUSIONS: Results underscore the impact that affordability of, knowledge about, and convenience in obtaining mammograms have on adherence to recent screening. Strategies to improve mammography adherence among Latinas may need to consider that solely improving access to insurance or a regular source of healthcare, although important, may not be sufficient to improve rates of Latinas' screening mammography adherence.

Cervical cancer screening in medically underserved California Latina and non-Latina women: effect of age and regularity of Pap testing.

BACKGROUND: This study focuses on age, race/ethnicity and regular cervical cancer screening of medically underserved Latina and non-Latina women enrolled in California's Cancer Detection Programs: Every Woman Counts (CDP: EWC). METHODS: Data from a cohort of women were evaluated for regularity of screening and ethnicity utilizing multi-category logistic regression models to investigate Pap test and biopsy results. RESULTS: There was no statistically significant difference among medically underserved Latina or non-Latina women in Pap test result and stage of cervical cancer after controlling for age and screening regularity. Rarely/never Pap-tested women were more likely to have 'SIL/ASC' (odds ratio=1.19; 95% confidence interval=1.08, 1.31) compared to women who were screened regularly. Medically underserved 25-39-year-old women were also more likely to be identified with 'SIL/ASC' (odds ratio=1.64; 95% confidence interval=1.50, 1.79) than women 50 and over. Younger were more likely to have low-grade 'HPV/Condylomata, Atypia/CINI/LSIL' (odds ratio=2.48; 95% confidence interval=1.66, 3.72) and high-grade 'CIN II/III/HSIL/CI/Other Cancers' (odds ratio=1.53; 95% confidence interval=1.08, 2.16) than women age 40 and above, similar to rarely/never Pap-tested women. CONCLUSIONS: Women were more likely to be identified with high-grade precancerous cervical lesions and cancer process when they did not have regular screening, Ethnic differences in screening outcomes seem to be minimized by participation in a program that provides consistent screening resources to the medically underserved women who enroll. These findings support prevention strategies that expand screening to all medically underserved younger women or that provide HPV vaccination at an early age.

Improving rescreening in community clinics: does a system approach work?

Community clinics provide inadequate breast cancer screening services to low-income, racially- and ethnically-diverse communities. This study develops and evaluates the effectiveness of multifaceted organizational system interventions--operational assessments, tracking systems, reminder calls, tailored education, physician prompts and a tailored counseling call--on mammography rescreening rates within three community clinics. We used the Chronic Care Model and Put Prevention Into Practice framework to redesign breast screening delivery services within the California Cancer Detection Programs: Every Woman Counts (CDP:EWC), community clinic settings. We used a quasi-experimental design with a random selection of 400 patients at pre-intervention. To establish a post-intervention clinic's rescreening rate a new comparable cross-sectional random sample of 347 women was drawn. Measures A chart abstraction instrument was used to establish clinics' rescreening rates. Subjects participants at pre and post-intervention were low-income women 50 years of age and older who had received normal mammography results and had not been diagnosed with breast cancer in the last five years. General linear mixed model analysis revealed significant improvements for the organizational system redesign condition [pre-intervention rescreening rate: 32.1 percent v. post-intervention rescreening rate 50.2 percent, (p < .001)]. For the organizational system redesign plus tailored counseling call condition, there was maintenance in the rescreening rate following the intervention [pre-intervention: 44.4 percent v. post-intervention: 45.1 percent, (p > 0.05)]. Multilevel interventions directed at redesigning community clinics primary care breast cancer screening services, can improve mammography rescreening rates.

Stage of breast cancer diagnosis among medically underserved women in California receiving mammography through a state screening program.

OBJECTIVE: This study describes breast cancer stage at diagnosis among California women receiving mammograms through a state-administered screening program in comparison to other California women. METHOD: Linked data from California-administered screening programs and the California Cancer Registry were used to identify participants diagnosed with breast cancer between 1994 and 2000. Logistic regression was used to compare the adjusted likelihood of late stage disease among program participants (categorized into four subgroups based on the timing and frequency of mammograms) to non-participants in California diagnosed during the same time period. RESULTS: Program participants were significantly more likely than non-participants to be diagnosed at late stage (adjusted OR 1.2; 95% CI 1.1, 1.3), with the highest risk occurring among those diagnosed 0-1 months after initial mammogram (adjusted OR 1.8; 95% CI 1.6, 2.1). The stage distribution among regularly screened participants was similar to non-participants (adjusted OR of late stage disease 0.9; 95% CI 0.7, 1.1). CONCLUSIONS: Although program participants were more likely to be diagnosed at late stage than non-participants, their stage distribution was distinctly different according to their pattern of mammography utilization. This likely reflects differential utilization of program diagnostic and screening services, which should be taken into account in program evaluation.