Circadian protection against bacterial skin infection by epidermal CXCL14-mediated innate immunity.

The epidermis is the outermost layer of the skin and the body's primary barrier to external pathogens; however, the early epidermal immune response remains to be mechanistically understood. We show that the chemokine CXCL14, produced by epidermal keratinocytes, exhibits robust circadian fluctuations and initiates innate immunity. Clearance of the skin pathogen Staphylococcus aureus in nocturnal mice was associated with CXCL14 expression, which was high during subjective daytime and low at night. In contrast, in marmosets, a diurnal primate, circadian CXCL14 expression was reversed. Rhythmically expressed CXCL14 binds to S. aureus DNA and induces inflammatory cytokine production by activating Toll-like receptor (TLR)9-dependent innate pathways in dendritic cells and macrophages underneath the epidermis. CXCL14 also promoted phagocytosis by macrophages in a TLR9-independent manner. These data indicate that circadian production of the epidermal chemokine CXCL14 rhythmically suppresses skin bacterial proliferation in mammals by activating the innate immune system.

Identification of compounds that preferentially suppress the growth of T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia-derived cells.

T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (T-ALL) is one of the most frequently occurring cancers in children and is associated with a poor prognosis. Here, we performed large-scale screening of natural compound libraries to identify potential drugs against T-ALL. We identified three low-molecular-weight compounds (auxarconjugatin-B, rumbrin, and lavendamycin) that inhibited the proliferation of the T-ALL cell line CCRF-CEM, but not that of the B lymphoma cell line Raji in a low concentration range. Among them, auxarconjugatin-B and rumbrin commonly contained a polyenyl 3-chloropyrrol in their chemical structure, therefore we chose auxarconjugatin-B for further analyses. Auxarconjugatin-B suppressed the in vitro growth of five human T-ALL cell lines and two T-ALL patient-derived cells, but not that of adult T-cell leukemia patient-derived cells. Cultured normal T cells were several-fold resistant to auxarconjugatin-B. Auxarconjugatin-B and its synthetic analogue Ra#37 depolarized the mitochondrial membrane potential of CCRF-CEM cells within 3 h of treatment. These compounds are promising seeds for developing novel anti-T-ALL drugs.

Identification of Functional Domains of CXCL14 Involved in High-Affinity Binding and Intracellular Transport of CpG DNA.

Some CXC chemokines, including CXCL14, transport CpG oligodeoxynucleotides (ODNs) into dendritic cells (DCs), thereby activating TLR9. The molecular basis of this noncanonical function of CXC chemokines is not well understood. In this study, we investigated the CpG ODN binding and intracellular transport activities of various CXC chemokines and partial peptides of CXCL14 in mouse bone marrow-derived dendritic cells. CXCL14, CXCL4, and CXCL12 specifically bound CpG ODN, but CXCL12 failed to transport it into cells at low dose. CXCL14 N-terminal peptides 1-47, but not 1-40, was capable of transporting CpG ODN into the cell, resulting in an increase in cytokine production. However, both the 1-47 and 1-40 peptides bound CpG ODN. By contrast, CXCL14 peptides 13-50 did not possess CpG ODN binding capacity or transport activity. The chimeric peptides CXCL12 (1-22)-CXCL14 (13-47) bound CpG ODN but failed to transport it. These results suggest that amino acids 1-12 and 41-47 of CXCL14 are required for binding and intracellular transport of CpG ODN, respectively. We found that an anti-CXCL14 Ab blocked cell-surface binding and internalization of the CpG ODN/CXCL14 complex. On the basis of these findings, we propose that CXCL14 has two functional domains, one involved in DNA recognition and the other in internalization of CXCL14-CpG DNA complex via an unidentified CXCL14 receptor, which together are responsible for eliciting the CXCL14/CpG ODN-mediated TLR9 activation. These domains could play roles in CXCL14-related diseases such as arthritis, obesity-induced diabetes, and various types of carcinoma.

Epigenetic regulation of the glucose transporter gene Slc2a1 by ß-hydroxybutyrate underlies preferential glucose supply to the brain of fasted mice.

We carried out liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis of metabolites in mice. Those metabolome data showed that hepatic glucose content is reduced, but that brain glucose content is unaffected, during fasting, consistent with the priority given to brain glucose consumption during fasting. The molecular mechanisms for this preferential glucose supply to the brain are not fully understood. We also showed that the fasting-induced production of the ketone body ß-hydroxybutyrate (ß-OHB) enhances expression of the glucose transporter gene Slc2a1 (Glut1) via histone modification. Upon ß-OHB treatment, Slc2a1 expression was up-regulated, with a concomitant increase in H3K9 acetylation at the critical cis-regulatory region of the Slc2a1 gene in brain microvascular endothelial cells and NB2a neuronal cells, shown by quantitative PCR analysis and chromatin immunoprecipitation assay. CRISPR/Cas9-mediated disruption of the Hdac2 gene increased Slc2a1 expression, suggesting that it is one of the responsible histone deacetylases (HDACs). These results confirm that ß-OHB is a HDAC inhibitor and show that ß-OHB plays an important role in fasting-induced epigenetic activation of a glucose transporter gene in the brain.

LIM homeobox transcription factor Lhx2 inhibits skeletal muscle differentiation in part via transcriptional activation of Msx1 and Msx2.

LIM homeobox transcription factor Lhx2 is known to be an important regulator of neuronal development, homeostasis of hair follicle stem cells, and self-renewal of hematopoietic stem cells; however, its function in skeletal muscle development is poorly understood. In this study, we found that overexpression of Lhx2 completely inhibits the myotube-forming capacity of C2C12 cells and primary myoblasts. The muscle dedifferentiation factors Msx1 and Msx2 were strongly induced by the Lhx2 overexpression. Short interfering RNA-mediated knockdown of Lhx2 in the developing limb buds of mouse embryos resulted in a reduction in Msx1 and Msx2 mRNA levels, suggesting that they are downstream target genes of Lhx2. We found two Lhx2 consensus-binding sites in the -2097 to -1189 genomic region of Msx1 and two additional sites in the -536 to +73 genomic region of Msx2. These sequences were shown by luciferase reporter assay to be essential for Lhx2-mediated transcriptional activation. Moreover, electrophoretic mobility shift assays and chromatin immunoprecipitation assays showed that Lhx2 is present in chromatin DNA complexes bound to the enhancer regions of the Msx1 and Msx2 genes. These data demonstrate that Msx1 and Msx2 are direct transcriptional targets of Lhx2. In addition, overexpression of Lhx2 significantly enhanced the mRNA levels of bone morphogenetic protein 4 and transforming growth factor beta family genes. We propose that Lhx2 is involved in the early stage of skeletal muscle development by inducing multiple differentiation inhibitory factors.

Efficient one-pot synthesis of CXCL14 and its derivative using an N-sulfanylethylanilide peptide as a peptide thioester equivalent and their biological evaluation.

CXCL14 is a CXC-type chemokine that exhibits chemotactic activity for immature dendritic cells, activated macrophages, and activated natural killer cells. However, its specific receptor and signaling pathway remain obscure. Recently, it was reported that CXCL14 binds to CXCR4 with high affinity and inhibits CXCL12-mediated chemotaxis. Furthermore, the CXCL14 C-terminal α-helical region is important for binding to its receptor. In this context, we chemically synthesized CXCL14 and its derivative with a one-pot method using N-sulfanylethylanilide peptide as a thioester equivalent. The synthetic CXCL14 proteins possessed inhibitory activities to CXCL12-mediated chemotaxis comparable with that of recombinant CXCL14. Moreover, we proved that chemically biotinylated CXCL14 binds to CXCR4 on cells by flow cytometry analysis.

Identification of Low-Density Lipoprotein Receptor-Related Protein 1 as a CXCL14 Receptor Using Chemically Synthesized Tetrafunctional Probes.

CXCL14 is a primordial CXC-type chemokine that transports CpG oligodeoxynucleotides (ODN) into endosomes and lysosomes in dendritic cells, thereby leading to the activation of the Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9)-mediated innate immune system. However, the underlying molecular mechanism by which the CXCL14-CpG ODN complex enters cells remains elusive. Herein, we describe the chemical synthesis of CXCL14-derived photoaffinity probes and their application to the identification of target receptors for CXCL14 using quantitative proteomics. By utilizing native chemical ligation and maleimide-thiol coupling chemistry, we synthesized site-specifically modified CXCL14-based photoaffinity probes that contain photoreactive 2-aryl-5-carboxytetrazole (ACT) and a hydrazine-labile cleavable linker. CXCL14-based probes were found to be capable of binding CpG ODN to immune cells, whose bioactivities were comparable to native CXCL14. Application of CXCL14-derived probes to quantitative proteomic experiments enabled the identification of dozens of target receptor candidates for CXCL14 in mouse macrophage-derived RAW264.7 cells, and we discovered that low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 1 (LRP1) is a novel receptor for CXCL14 by competitive proteome profiling. We further showed that disruption of LRP1 affected the incorporation of the CXCL14-CpG ODN complex in the cells. Overall, this report highlights the power of synthetic CXCL14-derived photoaffinity probes combined with chemical proteomics to discover previously unidentified receptors for CXCL14, which could promote an understanding of the molecular functions of CXCL14 and the elaborate machinery of innate immune systems.

WGEF activates Rho in the Wnt-PCP pathway and controls convergent extension in Xenopus gastrulation.

The Wnt-PCP (planar cell polarity, PCP) pathway regulates cell polarity and convergent extension movements during axis formation in vertebrates by activation of Rho and Rac, leading to the re-organization of the actin cytoskeleton. Rho and Rac activation require guanine nucleotide-exchange factors (GEFs), but the identity of the GEF involved in Wnt-PCP-mediated convergent extension is unknown. Here we report the identification of the weak-similarity GEF (WGEF) gene by a microarray-based screen for notochord enriched genes, and show that WGEF is involved in Wnt-regulated convergent extension. Overexpression of WGEF activated RhoA and rescued the suppression of convergent extension by dominant-negative Wnt-11, whereas depletion of WGEF led to suppression of convergent extension that could be rescued by RhoA or Rho-associated kinase activation. WGEF protein preferentially localized at the plasma membrane, and Frizzled-7 induced colocalization of Dishevelled and WGEF. WGEF protein can bind to Dishevelled and Daam-1, and deletion of the Dishevelled-binding domain generates a hyperactive from of WGEF. These results indicate that WGEF is a component of the Wnt-PCP pathway that connects Dishevelled to Rho activation.

Coordinated activation of the secretory pathway during notochord formation in the Xenopus embryo.

We compared the transcriptome in the developing notochord of Xenopus laevis embryos with that of other embryonic regions. A coordinated and intense activation of a large set of secretory pathway genes was observed in the notochord, but not in notochord precursors in the axial mesoderm at early gastrula stage. The genes encoding Xbp1 and Creb3l2 were also activated in the notochord. These two transcription factors are implicated in the activation of secretory pathway genes during the unfolded protein response, where cells react to the stress of a build-up of unfolded proteins in their endoplasmic reticulum. Xbp1 and Creb3l2 are differentially expressed but not differentially activated in the notochord. Reduction of expression of Xbp1 or Creb3l2 by injection of antisense morpholinos led to strong deficits in notochord but not somitic muscle development. In addition, the expression of some, but not all, genes encoding secretory proteins was inhibited by injection of xbp1 morpholinos. Furthermore, expression of activated forms of Xbp1 or Creb3l2 in animal explants could activate a similar subset of secretory pathway genes. We conclude that coordinated activation of a battery of secretory pathway genes mediated by Xbp1 and Creb/ATF factors is a characteristic and necessary feature of notochord formation.

Application of N-C- or C-N-directed sequential native chemical ligation to the preparation of CXCL14 analogs and their biological evaluation.

CXCL14 is a chemokine that exhibits chemoattractant activity for activated macrophages, immature dendric cells, natural killer cells, and epithelial tumor cells. Its potential role as a metabolic regulator has recently been disclosed. However, a complete understanding of its physiological roles remains elusive. This is partly due to the lack of appropriate CXCL14-based molecular probes to explore the biological functions of CXCL14. In this context, we have developed synthetic protocols that provide access to a wide variety of CXCL14 analogs. Two sequential native chemical ligation (NCL) protocols, which proceed in opposite directions, have been used to assemble CXCL14 analogs from peptide fragments. The first involved a conventional C-N-directed sequential NCL, and afforded wild-type CXCL14. The other used peptide thioacids in N-C-directed elongation, and yielded CXCL14 analogs with molecular diversity at the C-terminal fragment. The CXCL14 analogs prepared showed biological activity on human monocytic leukemia-derived THP-1 cells that was comparable to that of wild-type CXCL14.

Antibody-assisted enhancement of biological activities of CXCL14 in human monocytic leukemia-derived THP-1 cells and high fat diet-induced obese mice.

CXCL14 is a CXC-type chemokine acting on tissue macrophages, immature dendritic cells, natural killer cells, and epithelial tumor cells. It also serves as a metabolic regulator in obese mice by blunting insulin activity. In contrast to other CXC chemokines, it remains to be clarified how CXCL14 activates its putative receptors on the cell surface and whether it induces chemokinesis. This is mainly due to the insufficient sensitivity of currently available bioassays for CXCL14. In this study, we found that the anti-CXCL14 monoclonal antibody, MAB730, remarkably enhances the activities of CXCL14 in human monocytic leukemia-derived THP-1 cells and immature dendritic cells. MAB730 augmented CXCL14-mediated chemotaxis and chemokinesis with distinct dose requirement. Chemotaxis inducing activity was retained in the MAB730 F(ab')(2) fraction, but not in the Fab fraction, implying that ligand dimerization is involved in the MAB730-assisted enhancement of CXCL14 activity. In addition, MAB730 was more efficient than heparin at inhibiting CXCL14 binding to low affinity receptors on THP-1 cells. Finally, in vivo administration of MAB730 antibody into high fat diet-induced obese mice increased whole body insulin resistance and glucose intolerance. These unique properties of MAB730 will be useful for elucidating the molecular mechanism of cellular responses elicited by CXCL14.

Latrophilin2 is involved in neural crest cell migration and placode patterning in Xenopus laevis.

Latrophilin2 (Lphn2) is an adhesion-class of G protein-coupled receptor with an unknown function in development. Here, we show that Xenopus laevis lphn2 (Xlphn2) is involved in the migration and differentiation of neural crest (NC) cells and placode patterning in Xenopus laevis embryos. Although Xlphn2 mRNA was detected throughout embryogenesis, it was expressed more abundantly in the placode region. Morpholino antisense oligonucleotide-mediated knockdown of Xlphn2 caused abnormal migration of NC cells, irregular epibranchial placode segmentation, and defective cartilage formation. Transplantation of fluorescently-labeled NC regions of wild-type embryos into Xlphn2 morpholino-injected embryos reproduced the defective NC cell migration, indicating that Xlphn2 regulates the migration of NC cells in a non-cell autonomous manner. Our results suggest that Xlphn2 is essential for placode patterning and as a guidance molecule for NC cells.

CXCL14 Acts as a Specific Carrier of CpG DNA into Dendritic Cells and Activates Toll-like Receptor 9-mediated Adaptive Immunity.

CXCL14 is a primordial chemokine that plays multiple roles in tumor suppression, autoimmune arthritis, and obesity-associated insulin resistance. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms are unclear. Here, we show that CXCL14 transports various types of CpG oligodeoxynucleotide (ODN) into the endosomes and lysosomes of bone marrow-derived dendritic cells (DCs), thereby activating Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9). A combination of CpG ODN (ODN2395) plus CXCL14 induced robust production of IL-12 p40 by wild-type, but not Tlr9-knockout, DCs. Consistent with this, ODN2395-mediated activation of DCs was significantly attenuated in Cxcl14-knockout mice. CXCL14 bound CpG ODN with high affinity at pH7.5, but not at pH6.0, thereby enabling efficient delivery of CpG ODN to TLR9 in the endosome/lysosome. Furthermore, the CXCL14-CpG ODN complex specifically bound to high affinity CXCL14 receptors on DCs. Thus, CXCL14 serves as a specific carrier of CpG DNA to sensitize TLR9-mediated immunosurveillance.

Overexpression of the secreted factor Mig30 expressed in the Spemann organizer impairs morphogenetic movements during Xenopus gastrulation.

The Spemann organizer secretes several antagonists of growth factors during gastrulation. We describe a novel secreted protein, Mig30, which is expressed in the anterior endomesoderm of the Spemann organizer. Mixer-inducible gene 30 (Mig30) was isolated as a target of Mixer, a homeobox gene required for endoderm development. The Mig30 gene encodes a secreted protein containing a cysteine-rich domain and an immunoglobulin-like domain that belongs to the insulin-like growth factor-binding protein family. Overexpression of Mig30 in the dorsal region results in the retardation of morphogenetic movements during gastrulation and leads to microcephalic embryos. Overexpression of Mig30 also inhibits activin-induced elongation of ectodermal explants without affecting gene expression patterns in mesoderm and endoderm. These results suggest that Mig30 is involved in the regulation of morphogenetic movements during gastrulation in the extracellular space of the Spemann organizer.

CXCL14 antagonizes the CXCL12-CXCR4 signaling axis.

CXCL12 and CXCL14 are evolutionarily conserved members of the CXC-type chemokine family. CXCL12 binds specifically to the G-protein-coupled receptor CXCR4 to induce the migration of primordial germ cells, hematopoietic stem cells, and inflammation-associated immune cells. In addition, CXCL12-CXCR4 signaling is often enhanced in malignant tumor cells and facilitates increased proliferation as well as metastasis. Although macrophage migration inhibitory factor and extracellular ubiquitin interact with CXCR4 as agonistic factors, CXCL12 was believed to be the sole chemokine ligand for CXCR4. However, a very recent report revealed that CXCL14 binds to CXCR4 with high affinity and efficiently inhibits CXCL12-mediated chemotaxis of hematopoietic progenitor and leukemia-derived cells. CXCL14 does not directly cross-compete with CXCL12 for the CXCR4 binding but instead inactivates CXCR4 via receptor internalization. Because both CXCL12 and CXCL14 are expressed during embryogenesis and brain development in mice, these two chemokines could function in an interactive fashion. We propose that the CXCL14 gene has been conserved from fish to man due to its role in fine-tuning the strength of CXCL12-mediated signal transduction. In addition to its biological implications, the above finding will be important for designing anti-cancer compounds targeting the CXCL12-CXCR4 signaling axis. In fact, a stabilized dimeric peptide containing the C-terminal 51-77 amino acid residues of CXCL14 has been shown to have stronger CXCL12 antagonistic activity than full-length CXCL14.

Dimeric peptides of the C-terminal region of CXCL14 function as CXCL12 inhibitors.

We recently reported that CXCL14 binds to CXCR4 with high affinity and inhibits CXCL12-mediated chemotaxis. Here we found that the C-terminal 51-77 amino acid residues of CXCL14 are responsible for CXCR4 binding. A disulfide dimer peptide of CXCL14(51-77) bound to CXCR4 with comparable affinity to full length CXCL14, and exhibited CXCL12 inhibitor activity. CXCR4 was efficiently internalized upon binding of dimeric CXCL14(51-77), thereby being reduced on the cell surface. Substitution of 5 amino acid residues in combination with the use of an oxime linker for dimerization increased the solubility and chemical stability of the dimeric CXCL14(51-77).

CXCL14 is a natural inhibitor of the CXCL12-CXCR4 signaling axis.

Activation of the CXCL12-CXCR4 pathway is crucial for the migration of hematopoietic stem cells, various immune cells, and malignant tumor cells. Here, we show that another CXC chemokine, CXCL14, specifically binds to CXCR4 with high affinity and inhibits the CXCL12-mediated chemotaxis of human leukemia-derived cell lines and CD34(+) hematopoietic progenitor cells. Thus, CXCL14 functions as a natural inhibitor of CXCL12. Our observations suggest that CXCL14 represents, along with CXCR7, molecules that co-evolved with the CXCL12-CXCR4 axis to modulate important physiological processes in development, stem cell maintenance, and immune responses.

Pleiotropic functions of the CXC-type chemokine CXCL14 in mammals.

CXCL14 is a member of the CXC chemokine family. CXCL14 possesses chemoattractive activity for activated macrophages, immature dendritic cells and natural killer cells. CXCL14-deficient mice do not exhibit clear immune system abnormalities, suggesting that the function of CXCL14 can be compensated for by other chemokines. However, CXCL14 does appear to have unique biological roles. It suppresses the in vivo growth of lung and head-and-neck carcinoma cells, whereas the invasiveness of breast and prostate cancer cells appears to be promoted by CXCL14. Moreover, recent evidence revealed that CXCL14 participates in glucose metabolism, feeding behaviour-associated neuronal circuits, and anti-microbial defense. Based on the expression patterns of CXCL14 and CXCL12 during embryonic development and in the perinatal brain in mice, the functions of these two chemokines may be opposite or interactive. Although CXCL14 receptors have not yet been identified, the intracellular activity of CXCL14 in breast cancer cells suggests that the CXCL14 receptor(s) and signal transduction pathway(s) may be different from those of conventional CXC-type chemokines.

XIer2 is required for convergent extension movements during Xenopus development.

Immediate early response 2 (Ier2) is a downstream target of fibroblast growth factor (FGF) signaling. In zebrafish, Ier2 is involved in left-right asymmetry establishment and in convergent extension movements. We isolated the Xenopus ier2 gene based on sequence similarity searches using multiple vertebrate species. Xenopus Ier2 has high homology in the N-terminal region to other vertebrate Ier2 proteins, and Xier2 transcripts were observed from oocytes through larval stages. Except for the maternal expression of xier2, the expression of this gene in the marginal region at gastrulation and in somites and the notochord at later stages is similar to the expression pattern of zebrafish ier2. XIer2 knockdown using antisense morpholinos resulted in defects of convergent extension leading to severe neural tube defects; overexpression of Ier2 showed similar, albeit milder phenotypes. Assays in animal cap explants likewise showed inhibition of elongation after blocking XIer2 expression. These results indicate that Xenopus Ier2 is essential for the execution of convergent extension movements during early Xenopus development.

CXCL14 deficiency in mice attenuates obesity and inhibits feeding behavior in a novel environment.

BACKGROUND: CXCL14 is a chemoattractant for macrophages and immature dendritic cells. We recently reported that CXCL14-deficient (CXCL14(-/-)) female mice in the mixed background are protected from obesity-induced hyperglycemia and insulin resistance. The decreased macrophage infiltration into visceral adipose tissues and the increased insulin sensitivity of skeletal muscle contributed to these phenotypes. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: In this study, we performed a comprehensive study for the body weight control of CXCL14(-/-) mice in the C57BL/6 background. We show that both male and female CXCL14(-/-) mice have a 7-11% lower body weight compared to CXCL14(+/-) and CXCL14(+/+) mice in adulthood. This is mainly caused by decreased food intake, and not by increased energy expenditure or locomotor activity. Reduced body weight resulting from the CXCL14 deficiency was more pronounced in double mutant CXCL14(-/-)ob/ob and CXCL14(-/-)A(y) mice. In the case of CXCL14(-/-)A(y) mice, oxygen consumption was increased compared to CXCL14(+/-)A(y) mice, in addition to the reduced food intake. In CXCL14(-/-) mice, fasting-induced up-regulation of Npy and Agrp mRNAs in the hypothalamus was blunted. As intracerebroventricular injection of recombinant CXCL14 did not change the food intake of CXCL14(-/-) mice, CXCL14 could indirectly regulate appetite. Intriguingly, the food intake of CXCL14(-/-) mice was significantly repressed when mice were transferred to a novel environment. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: We demonstrated that CXCL14 is involved in the body weight control leading to the fully obese phenotype in leptin-deficient or A(y) mutant mice. In addition, we obtained evidence indicating that CXCL14 may play an important role in central nervous system regulation of feeding behavior.