The role of the human homologue of Drosophila patched in sporadic basal cell carcinomas.

Basal cell carcinoma (BCC) is the most common cancer in humans. The majority of sporadic BCCs have allele loss on chromosome 9q22 implying that inactivation of a tumour suppressor in this region is an important step in BCC formation. The gene for nevoid basal cell carcinoma syndrome (NBCCS), an autosomal dominant disorder characterized by multiple BCCs, maps to the same region and is presumed to be the tumour suppressor inactivated at this site. NBCCS has been identified recently and encodes a protein with strong homology to the Drosophila segment polarity gene, patched. Analysis of Drosophila mutants indicates that patched interacts with the hedgehog signalling pathway, repressing the expression of various hedgehog target genes including wingless, decapentaplegic and patched itself. Using single strand conformational polymorphism (SSCP) to screen human patched in 37 sporadic BCCs, we detected mutations in one-third of the tumours. Direct sequencing of two BCCs without SSCP variants revealed mutations in those tumours as well suggesting that inactivation of patched is probably a necessary step in BCC development. Northern blots and RNA in situ hybridization showed that patched is expressed at high levels in tumour cells but not normal skin suggesting that mutational inactivation of the gene leads to overexpression of mutant transcript owing to failure of a negative feedback mechanism.

Mammalian suppressor-of-fused modulates nuclear-cytoplasmic shuttling of Gli-1.

Sonic hedgehog, Patched and Gli are components of a mammalian signalling pathway that has been conserved during evolution and which has a central role in the control of pattern formation and cellular proliferation during development. Here we identify the human Suppressor-of-Fused (SUFUH) complementary DNA and show that the gene product interacts physically with the transcriptional effector GLI-1, can sequester GLI-1 in the cytoplasm, but can also interact with GLI-1 on DNA. Functionally, SUFUH inhibits transcriptional activation by GLI-1, as well as osteogenic differentiation in response to signalling from Sonic hedgehog. Localization of GLI-1 is influenced by the presence of a nuclear-export signal, and GLI-1 becomes constitutively nuclear when this signal is mutated or nuclear export is inhibited. These results show that SUFUH is a conserved negative regulator of GLI-1 signalling that may affect nuclear-cytoplasmic shuttling of GLI-1 or the activity of GLI-1 in the nucleus and thereby modulate cellular responses.

Phorbol esters inhibit the Hedgehog signalling pathway downstream of Suppressor of Fused, but upstream of Gli.

The developmentally important Hedgehog (Hh) signal transduction pathway, which has recently been implicated in several forms of cancer, is subject to regulation by several protein kinases. Here, we address the role of protein kinase Cdelta in pathway inhibition and show that cellular depletion or pharmacological inhibition of this kinase isoform results in a blockade of signalling between Suppressor of Fused and the Gli transcription factors. We further provide evidence that the observed pathway inhibition is independent of primary cilia and the mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase (Mek1) kinase. These findings allowed for the rapid dissection of downstream Hh pathway activation mechanisms in human tumour cells and demonstrate a surprising variation in how cells can activate signalling in a ligand- and receptor-independent manner.

Distinct roles of first exon variants of the tumor-suppressor Patched1 in Hedgehog signaling.

Patched1 (PTCH1) is one of the key molecules involved in the Hedgehog (HH) signaling pathway and acts as the receptor of HH ligands. Additionally, PTCH1 inhibits the positive signal transductor Smoothened (SMO). Several PTCH1 splice variants are known but the functional differences among them are not clear. Here, we demonstrate the unique biological properties of the PTCH1 isoforms generated by alternative first exon usage. All isoforms examined worked as functional receptors of both Sonic HH and Desert HH. However, the signaling upregulated isoforms PTCH1-1B and -1C inhibited SMO and the pathway transcription factors glioma 1 (GLI1) and GLI2 to a higher extent than PTCH1-1 and -1Ckid. Moreover, in situ hybridizations allowed the detection of the Ptch1 isoforms in specific structures of the developing mouse embryo. Additionally, the differences in the N-terminal tail had a dramatic influence on the steady states of the proteins, with PTCH1-1B and -1C levels being significantly higher than PTCH1-1 and -1Ckid. This implies that the pronounced signaling inhibitory properties of PTCH1-1B and -1C may be mostly due to this high-protein expression rather than to intrinsic functional differences. Thus, our study supports a role of splicing variation and promoter choice for HH signaling regulation.

Functional interference between hypoxia and dioxin signal transduction pathways: competition for recruitment of the Arnt transcription factor.

Hypoxia-inducible factor 1 alpha (HIF-1 alpha) and the intracellular dioxin receptor mediate hypoxia and dioxin signalling, respectively. Both proteins are conditionally regulated basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) transcription factors that, in addition to the bHLH motif, share a Per-Arnt-Sim (PAS) region of homology and form heterodimeric complexes with the common bHLH/PAS partner factor Arnt. Here we demonstrate that HIF-1 alpha required Arnt for DNA binding in vitro and functional activity in vivo. Both the bHLH and PAS motifs of Arnt were critical for dimerization with HIF-1 alpha. Strikingly, HIF-1 alpha exhibited very high affinity for Arnt in coimmunoprecipitation assays in vitro, resulting in competition with the ligand-activated dioxin receptor for recruitment of Arnt. Consistent with these observations, activation of HIF-1 alpha function in vivo or overexpression of HIF-1 alpha inhibited ligand-dependent induction of DNA binding activity by the dioxin receptor and dioxin receptor function on minimal reporter gene constructs. However, HIF-1 alpha- and dioxin receptor-mediated signalling pathways were not mutually exclusive, since activation of dioxin receptor function did not impair HIF-1 alpha-dependent induction of target gene expression. Both HIF-1 alpha and Arnt mRNAs were expressed constitutively in a large number of human tissues and cell lines, and these steady-state expression levels were not affected by exposure to hypoxia. Thus, HIF-1 alpha may be conditionally regulated by a mechanism that is distinct from induced expression levels, the prevalent model of activation of HIF-1 alpha function. Interestingly, we observed that HIF-1 alpha was associated with the molecular chaperone hsp90. Given the critical role of hsp90 for ligand binding activity and activation of the dioxin receptor, it is therefore possible that HIF-1 alpha is regulated by a similar mechanism, possibly by binding an as yet unknown class of ligands.

Keratin gene expression in mouse skin tumors and in mouse skin treated with 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate.

Alterations in the pattern of epidermal differentiation and proliferation occur during mouse skin carcinogenesis. We have used cDNA clones corresponding to the major keratin subunits synthesized in differentiating epidermal cells (Mr 67,000 and 59,000) and in proliferating epidermal cells (Mr 60,000, 55,000, and 50,000) to study changes in keratin gene transcript levels in mouse epidermis exposed to tumor promoters. The same probes were used to characterize the keratin expression patterns in benign and malignant skin tumors. A single topical treatment with 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate caused a rapid initial decrease in the epidermal transcript levels corresponding to the Mr 67,000 and 59,000 keratin subunits. By 48 h the transcript level for the Mr 67,000 keratin subunit was restored to control values, whereas the transcript levels for the Mr 59,000 subunit returned to control at a slower rate. In contrast, the transcript level for the Mr 55,000 subunit was increased substantially 12- 48 h after treatment, the Mr 50,000 subunit transcript increased to a lesser extent, and the Mr 60,000 subunit message was transiently decreased at 12 h but returned to the level of solvent-treated skin by 24 h. Single exposure to the incomplete tumor promoters 4-O-methyl-12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate, the ionophore A23187, and mezerein induced changes in keratin gene transcripts similar to those of 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate. The antipromoter fluocinolone acetonide, administered with 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate, partially inhibited the decrease in the Mr 59,000 and 67,000 transcripts and completely inhibited the increase in the Mr 55,000 transcript. In skin papillomas produced by initiation and promotion, keratin gene expression was similar to normal skin, with the exception of a two-fold increase in the transcript levels for the Mr 55,000 keratin subunit. However, in carcinomas, the transcript levels for the Mr 67,000 and 59,000 subunits were only 1-3% of those observed in untreated mouse epidermis. In concert with other data, the rapid and selective loss of transcripts for differentiation-related keratins after exposure to both complete and incomplete tumor promoters is most consistent with an accelerated rate of maturation in differentiating keratinocytes, resulting in the rapid production of transcript-depleted fully mature squames. The enhanced level of Mr 55,000 transcripts suggests a concomitant increase in the number of all cells or a subset of cells in the proliferative compartment.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Differential expression of the cytochrome P-450c and P-450d genes in the rat ventral prostate and liver.

Complementary DNA clones specific for cytochromes P-450c and P-450d were used to study the expression of corresponding mRNAs in the rat ventral prostate. Following treatment with beta-naphthoflavone (BNF), an increase in total cellular levels of cytochrome P-450c mRNA was observed in this tissue. The induction kinetics were similar in both rat liver and prostate with regard to the expression of the cytochrome P-450c gene. The mRNA levels reached a maximum at 16 h and decreased to control levels at about 48 h. In contrast, mRNA specific for cytochrome P-450d was detectable only in the liver following BNF treatment (maximum at 24 h). The tissue-specific expression of cytochromes P-450c and P-450d was further investigated using measurements of nuclear transcription in vitro. RNA transcripts specific for cytochrome P-450c were detected in nuclei from both liver and prostate following BNF induction. The rate of cytochrome P-450c transcription was maximal at 4 h and 8-12 h in the liver and prostate, respectively. In the liver, induction by BNF of the rate of transcription of the cytochrome P-450d gene occurred at a slightly later time point as compared to cytochrome P-450c gene expression. No elongation of RNA specific for cytochrome P-450d could be detected in nuclei from the ventral prostate indicating a transcriptional control of cytochrome P-450d gene expression in this tissue.

Isolation and characterization of complementary DNA clones corresponding to genes induced in mouse epidermis in vivo by tumor promoters.

Complementary DNA clones representing genes in SENCAR mouse epidermis, the expression of which is induced 4 h after one topical application of the tumor promoter 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA) were isolated. Of 56 isolated complementary DNA clones, 32 were identified to be identical to either metallothioneins (MT-I and MT-II) or endogenous retroviral like (VL30) sequences. In situ hybridization and analysis of mRNA levels in cell fractions separated by density gradient centrifugation revealed that MT induction was restricted to keratinocytes in the basal cell layer. Immunohistochemistry and time-kinetic studies on mRNA levels in mouse epidermis showed that the increase in MT and VL30 RNAs coincide in time with a TPA-induced transient block in basal cell proliferation (3-12 h after TPA treatment). MT immunoreactivity and transcript levels had returned to control values at a time point (24 h after treatment) when epidermis is known to hyperproliferate. Treatment with other types of tumor promoters showed that MT-I and MT-II mRNAs were coordinately induced and indicated that sn-1,2-dioctanoylglycerol, 12-O-retinoylphorbol-13-acetate, and mezerein induced MT to a lesser degree than TPA. The calcium ionophore A23187 induced mRNA levels for MTs as well as VL30. VL30 and MT mRNA levels were not found to be elevated in epidermal tumors whereas the mRNA level corresponding to glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase was elevated in tumors and induced by TPA with time-kinetics that correlate with a TPA-induced hyperproliferation. These complementary DNA clones provide useful tools in the study of the gene-regulating effects of TPA in a target tissue relevant for tumor promotion.

Trichoepitheliomas contain somatic mutations in the overexpressed PTCH gene: support for a gatekeeper mechanism in skin tumorigenesis.

The nevoid basal cell carcinoma (Gorlin) syndrome (NBCCS) is an autosomal dominant disorder characterized by multiple developmental defects and cancer susceptibility. NBCCS is caused by mutations in the human homologue (PTCH) of the Drosophila patched gene, a developmental regulator implicated in signaling of hedgehog and smoothened. The PTCH gene was found to contain somatic mutations also in sporadic basal cell carcinomas and medulloblastomas, tumors seen in NBCCS, consistent with PTCH acting as a tumor suppressor. Because basal cell carcinomas have been observed to develop in association with benign trichoepitheliomas (TEs) in the same lesions, patients, and families and may share the same cell of origin, we have analyzed PTCH for mutations and expression in TEs. We report frameshift and in-frame somatic deletions in this gene and a consistent overexpression of PTCH mRNA in TEs. These findings provide the first evidence of a gene mutation in TEs and identify a common pathogenic pathway for histopathologically similar but prognostically distinct skin tumors. Moreover, these results support the presence of a gatekeeper mechanism in multistep skin tumorigenesis exerted by the altered PTCH signaling pathway.

Squamous cell carcinomas and increased apoptosis in skin with inhibited Rel/nuclear factor-kappaB signaling.

The Rel/nuclear factor-kappaB (Rel/NF-kappaB) transcription factors have been implicated previously in control of apoptosis, cell proliferation, and oncogenesis. Here we show that selective inhibition of Rel/NF-kappaB signaling in murine skin, by targeted overexpression of a super-repressor form of IkappaB-alpha, results in an increased basal frequency of apoptotic cells and the spontaneous development of squamous cell carcinomas. Presence of hyperplasia and hair follicle degeneration demonstrate an important role for Rel/NF-kappaB signaling in normal epidermal development and homeostasis. Transgenic skin, in addition, showed an enhanced sensitivity to UV-induced apoptosis. These data suggest an involvement of the Rel/NF-kappaB signaling pathway in apoptosis and cancer development of the skin.

Patched (ptch)-associated preferential expression of smoothened (smoh) in human basal cell carcinoma of the skin.

The discovery of specific overexpression of a gatekeeper gene, ptch, in basal cell carcinoma (BCC) led to a hypothesis that the human homologue of patched (PTCH) normally functions as a negative regulator of the signaling pathway that is initiated by hedgehogs (HHs) and activated by the human homologue of smoothened (SMOH); however, no evidence for the involvement of smoh and hhs has been provided. Here, we show novel evidence that smoh is also preferentially overexpressed in BCC, together with ptch (P < 0.002), and that Sonic hh was expressed in only some BCCs. Our data, therefore, indicate that such overexpression of smoh may be associated with overexpression or mutation of PTCH and that this overexpression subsequently stimulates the PTCH/SMOH signaling pathway. In an investigation of a possible regulation of ptch and smoh, we demonstrated that expression of exogenous p21WAF1 in immortalized keratinocytes down-regulates both ptch and smoh and that the down-regulation is accompanied by growth arrest, which suggests the involvement of p21WAF1 in regulation of the PTCH/SMOH signaling pathway.

Human patched (PTCH) mRNA is overexpressed consistently in tumor cells of both familial and sporadic basal cell carcinoma.

Recently, a human homologue of the Drosophila patched gene, PTCH, was identified as a putative tumor suppressor mutated in both hereditary and sporadic basal cell carcinomas. Because PTCH controls its own transcription, inactivating mutations in PTCH may lead to overexpression of mutant PTCH mRNA due to loss of autoregulation. The present study is aimed at evaluating whether deregulation of PTCH mRNA expression is a general feature of BCCs of varying histological growth pattern and malignant potential. Irrespective of histological subtype, PTCH mRNA was overexpressed consistently as determined by in situ hybridization in all of the sporadic (n = 16) and hereditary (n = 20) tumors examined. PTCH expression was found in all of the tumor cells but appeared stronger in the peripheral palisading cells. PTCH mRNA was not detected in adjacent nontumor epidermal cells or in other parts of the epidermis. In the majority of tumors (20 of 36), nuclear immunostaining for p53 was found in scattered cells, whereas seven tumors completely lacked p53 immunoreactivity. Our finding of an up-regulation of PTCH mRNA levels in all of the BCCs analyzed indicates that deregulation of the PTCH signaling pathway constitutes an early rate-limiting event in BCC development.

PTCH2, a novel human patched gene, undergoing alternative splicing and up-regulated in basal cell carcinomas.

By a combination of cDNA library screening, rapid amplification of cDNA ends analysis, and BAC sequencing, a novel human patched-like gene (PTCH2) has been cloned and sequenced. The genomic organization is similar to PTCH1 with 22 exons and, by radiation hybrid mapping, PTCH2 has been localized to chromosome 1p33-34, a region often lost in a variety of tumors. Several alternatively spliced mRNA forms of PTCH2 were identified, including transcripts lacking segments thought to be involved in sonic hedgehog binding and mRNAs with differentially defined 3' terminal exons. In situ hybridization revealed high expression of PTCH2 transcripts in both familial and sporadic basal cell carcinomas in similarity to what has been observed for PTCH1, suggesting a negative regulation of PTCH2 by PTCH1. This finding tightly links PTCH2 with the sonic hedgehog/PTCH signaling pathway, implying that PTCH2 has related, but yet distinct, functions than PTCH1.

Mutations in the human homologue of Drosophila patched (PTCH) in basal cell carcinomas and the Gorlin syndrome: different in vivo mechanisms of PTCH inactivation.

The nevoid basal cell carcinoma (Gorlin) syndrome (NBCCS) is an autosomal dominant disorder characterized by multiple developmental defects and cancer susceptibility, in particular to basal cell carcinoma. The human homologue of Drosophila patched (PTCH) was recently identified, mapped to the NBCCS locus on chromosome 9q22.3, and found mutated in patients with NBCCS and also in sporadic basal cell carcinomas. Here we show germ-line PTCH mutations in three families with NBCCS. We demonstrate that a germ-line PTCH frameshift deletion in one patient with NBCCS was accompanied by loss of the normal copy of PTCH in a tumor developed in the same patient. Another basal cell carcinoma from this patient did not show the loss of the normal copy of PTCH, instead a missense mutation in a highly conserved residue was identified in the nondeleted allele, illustrating two different mechanisms of PTCH inactivation in different tumors derived from the same NBCCS patient. We also show somatic PTCH mutations in 4 basal cell carcinomas identified by analyzing 18 non-NBCCS patients with sporadic tumors. These data provide further support for PTCH as an important tumor suppressor gene in the development of the most common human cancer.

Ras-independent activation of Rel-family transcription factors by UVB and TPA in cultured keratinocytes.

UV irradiation of mammalian cells results in the activation of transcription factors which mediate induction of early response genes designed to repair and minimise the damage sustained by the cell. Evidence from studies in HeLa cells suggest that UVC regulates NF-kappa B activity via tyrosine kinases and activation of Ras and Raf kinase. In this study we have used a previously characterized TPA-responsive element (VLTRE) that binds Rel/NF-kappa B proteins and a Ras-responsive element (B10 RRE) to analyse the signalling pathway in UVB-stimulated gene transcription in cultured keratinocytes. We demonstrate that the tumour promoters TPA and UVB use different signalling intermediates to activate different sets of Rel/NF-kappa B proteins. UVB transactivation is independent of PKC activity but dependent on tyrosine kinase activity where was TPA stimulation requires PKC but not tyrosine kinase activity. Furthermore, neither UVB- nor TPA-transactivation is mediated through p21 Ras but both stimuli are dependent on a functional Raf protein. A constitutively active Raf-1 kinase however, was unable to induce transactivation through VLTRE. Thus, Raf has an essential but permissive role in UVB activation of Rel proteins. These findings demonstrate that keratinocytes contain a novel Ras-independent pathway for induction of Rel mediated transcription.

Somatic mutations in the human homologue of Drosophila patched in primitive neuroectodermal tumours.

The naevoid basal cell carcinoma syndrome (NBCCS) is an autosomal dominant disorder characterized by multiple developmental defects and cancer susceptibility, in particular to basal cell carcinomas (BCCs). Medulloblastomas, primitive neuroectodermal tumours (PNETs) arising in childhood, occur in about 3-5% of NBCCS patients and a subset of PNETs was previously found with allelic imbalance at 9q22-q23, the region containing the gene for NBCCS (PTCH). We have analysed tumour DNA samples from 37 unrelated patients with sporadic PNETs and five medulloblastoma cell lines for PTCH mutations using an exon-by-exon single strand conformation polymorphism assay. We found three missense mutations, which affect conserved residues in transmembrane domains of the gene product and in the extracellular loop implicated in binding sonic hedgehog, one 2 bp deletion and an exon skipping splice site mutation. Most mutations were associated with the absence of the wild-type allele and were found in tumours exhibiting loss of heterozygosity (LOH) at loci flanking PTCH. The finding of LOH at 9q22-q23 in most mutated tumours while present in only three out of 26 tumours, in which a mutation was not identified, implicates PTCH as the target gene in PNETs with LOH at 9q22-q23 and deficient PTCH in the development of a subset of these tumours. Since all observed mutations were absent in the germ-line, a sporadic medulloblastoma developing as the first symptom of NBCCS is likely to be a very uncommon event.

PATCHED and p53 gene alterations in sporadic and hereditary basal cell cancer.

It is widely accepted that disruption of the hedgehog-patched pathway is a key event in development of basal cell cancer. In addition to patched gene alterations, p53 gene mutations are also frequent in basal cell cancer. We determined loss of heterozygosity in the patched and p53 loci as well as sequencing the p53 gene in tumors both from sporadic and hereditary cases. A total of 70 microdissected samples from tumor and adjacent skin were subjected to PCR followed by fragment analysis and DNA sequencing. We found allelic loss in the patched locus in 6/8 sporadic basal cell cancer and 17/19 hereditary tumors. All sporadic and 7/20 hereditary tumors showed p53 gene mutations. Loss of heterozygosity in the p53 locus was rare in both groups. The p53 mutations detected in hereditary tumors included rare single nucleotide deletions and unusual double-base substitutions compared to the typical ultraviolet light induced missense mutations found in sporadic tumors. Careful microdissection of individual tumors revealed genetically linked subclones with different p53 and/or patched genotype providing an insight on time sequence of genetic events. The high frequency and co-existence of genetic alterations in the patched and p53 genes suggest that both these genes are important in the development of basal cell cancer.

Genomic organization and embryonic expression of Suppressor of Fused, a candidate gene for the split-hand/split-foot malformation type 3.

The genes for human and mouse Suppressor of Fused (SU(FU)/Su(Fu)) in the Hedgehog signaling pathway were characterized and found to contain 12 exons. Human SU(FU) localized on chromosome 10q24-25 between the markers D10S192 and AFM183XB12. We detected three additional SU(FU) isoforms, two of which have lost their ability to interact with the transcription factor GLI1. Expression analysis using whole mount in situ hybridization revealed strong expression of Su(Fu) in various mouse embryonic tissues. SU(FU) was considered a candidate gene for the split-hand/split-foot malformation type 3 (SHFM3). However, no alterations in the SU(FU) gene were found in SHFM3 patients.