Role of TOE1 variants at the nuclear localization motif in pontocerebellar hypoplasia 7.

Biallelic TOE1 variants can cause pontocerebellar hypoplasia type 7 (PCH7), a condition characterized by pontocerebellar hypoplasia with genital abnormality. TOE1 is a 3'-exonuclese for 3'-end maturation in small nuclear RNA. TOE1 pathogenic variants have been reported at the DEDD catalytic domain and zinc finger motif. Here, we describe a PCH7 patient with novel compound heterozygous TOE1 variants and a detailed clinical course. The patient was a 3-year-old female and showed developmental delay without cerebellar ataxic behavior. Head MRI revealed delayed myelination without pontocerebellar hypoplasia at 9 months of age. Progressive pontocerebellar atrophy was prominent at follow-up MRI. Cerebral abnormalities are characteristic features of PCH7 before pontocerebellar atrophy is observed. One variant, p.Arg331*, was located at the nuclear localization motif (NLM) and partially escaped from nonsense-mediated decay. This variant affected nuclear localization in mutant expressing cells, thus, the TOE1 variant at NLM leads to TOE1 dysfunction associated with nuclear mis-localization.

Two siblings with acute necrotizing encephalopathy associated with variants of LARS1.

Acute necrotizing encephalopathy (ANE) is a rapidly progressive encephalopathy of unknown etiology. The underlying mechanisms are highly heterogeneous, often including genetic backgrounds. Variants of LARS1, encoding the leucyl-tRNA synthetase 1, are responsible for infantile liver failure syndrome 1. We describe two siblings with ANE caused by compound heterozygous variants of LARS1. Patient 1 was a 17-month-old girl. She presented with generalized seizure and liver dysfunction due to influenza type A infection. Brain magnetic resonance imaging on day 4 of onset showed diffuse high-intensity signals consistent with ANE. She died on day 10. Patient 2, a younger male sibling of patient 1, had mild to moderate developmental delay and growth failure at the age of 18 months. He showed a markedly elevated level of transaminases triggered by infection with human herpesvirus 6. On day 4 of onset, he had generalized seizures. Brain computed tomography showed a diffuse symmetrical hypodensity consistent with ANE. He died on day 7. Whole exome sequencing identified the compound heterozygous variants in LARS1 (NM_020117.11) as c.83_88delinsAATGGGATA, p.(Arg28_Phe30delinsLysTryAspIle) and c.1283C>T, p.(Pro428Leu) in both siblings. The severe neurologic phenotype, found in our patients, reflects the complicated pathogenesis of LARS1-related disorder.

Genetic and clinical landscape of childhood cerebellar hypoplasia and atrophy.

PURPOSE: Cerebellar hypoplasia and atrophy (CBHA) in children is an extremely heterogeneous group of disorders, but few comprehensive genetic studies have been reported. Comprehensive genetic analysis of CBHA patients may help differentiating atrophy and hypoplasia and potentially improve their prognostic aspects. METHODS: Patients with CBHA in 176 families were genetically examined using exome sequencing. Patients with disease-causing variants were clinically evaluated. RESULTS: Disease-causing variants were identified in 96 of the 176 families (54.5%). After excluding 6 families, 48 patients from 42 families were categorized as having syndromic associations with CBHA, whereas the remaining 51 patients from 48 families had isolated CBHA. In 51 patients, 26 aberrant genes were identified, of which, 20 (76.9%) caused disease in 1 family each. The most prevalent genes were CACNA1A, ITPR1, and KIF1A. Of the 26 aberrant genes, 21 and 1 were functionally annotated to atrophy and hypoplasia, respectively. CBHA+S was more clinically severe than CBHA-S. Notably, ARG1 and FOLR1 variants were identified in 2 families, leading to medical treatments. CONCLUSION: A wide genetic and clinical diversity of CBHA was revealed through exome sequencing in this cohort, which highlights the importance of comprehensive genetic analyses. Furthermore, molecular-based treatment was available for 2 families.

Novel CLTC variants cause new brain and kidney phenotypes.

Heterozygous variants in CLTC, which encode the clathrin heavy chain protein, cause neurodevelopmental delay of varying severity, and often accompanied by dysmorphic features, seizures, hypotonia, and ataxia. To date, 28 affected individuals with CLTC variants have been reported, although their phenotypes have not been fully elucidated. Here, we report three novel de novo CLTC (NM_001288653.1) variants in three individuals with previously unreported clinical symptoms: c.3662_3664del:p.(Leu1221del) in individual 1, c.2878T>C:p.(Trp960Arg) in individual 2, and c.2430+1G>T:p.(Glu769_Lys810del) in individual 3. Consistent with previous reports, individuals with missense or small in-frame variants were more severely affected. Unreported symptoms included a brain defect (cystic lesions along the lateral ventricles of the brain in individuals 1 and 3), kidney findings (high-echogenic kidneys in individual 1 and agenesis of the left kidney and right vesicoureteral reflux in individual 3), respiratory abnormality (recurrent pneumonia in individual 1), and abnormal hematological findings (anemia in individual 1 and pancytopenia in individual 3). Of note, individual 1 even exhibited prenatal abnormality (fetal growth restriction, cystic brain lesions, high-echogenic kidneys, and a heart defect), suggesting that CLTC variants should be considered when abnormal prenatal findings in multiple organs are detected.

Autopsy Report of a Woman with Infantile Alexander Disease Who Survived 39 Years.

Patients with infantile Alexander disease (AxD) usually do not survive beyond their early teens without life support care because of progressive central hypoventilation. We present the autopsy report of a woman with infantile AxD carrying an R239C mutation in the glial fibrillary acidic protein gene, who survived 39 years. She presented with psychomotor retardation in infancy and regressed after age 5. Brain computed tomography scans showed bilateral low frontal white matter density. She became quadriplegic with bulbar palsy and was intellectually handicapped after a measles infection at age 7. Tube feeding was introduced because of dysphagia at age 15. Noninvasive positive pressure ventilation was required due to central hypoventilation in her early thirties. She died of neurogenic respiratory failure at 39 years. Autopsy findings revealed a markedly atrophic brain (709 g, -6.0 standard deviation), especially in the frontal lobe, cerebellum, and brainstem portions. We found demyelination, gliosis, and cystic lesions throughout the brain, and we saw Rosenthal fibers accumulating in the perivascular spaces. We also identified a variety of abnormalities in other organs such as pancreatic necrosis, completely desquamated epithelium in the lower esophagus and stomach, foreign-body giant cells in the colon submucosa, glomerular sclerosis, and multiple bladder stones. This is the first autopsied case report of a patient with infantile AxD with long survival, who showed not only central nervous system characteristic findings, but also unexpected pathological changes in other organs.

Expansion of the phenotype of Kosaki overgrowth syndrome.

Skeletal overgrowth is a characteristic of several genetic disorders that are linked to specific molecular signaling cascades. Recently, we established a novel overgrowth syndrome (Kosaki overgrowth syndrome, OMIM #616592) arising from a de novo mutation in PDGFRB, that is, c.1751C>G p.(Pro584Arg). Subsequently, other investigators provided in vitro molecular evidence that this specific mutation in the juxtamembrane domain of PDGFRB causes an overgrowth phenotype and is the first gain-of-function point mutation of PDGFRB to be reported in humans. Here, we report the identification of a mutation in PDGFRB, c.1696T>C p.(Trp566Arg), in two unrelated patients with skeletal overgrowth, further confirming the existence of PDGFRB-related overgrowth syndrome arising from mutations in the juxtamembrane domain of PDGFRB. A review of all four of these patients with an overgrowth phenotype and PDGFRB mutations revealed postnatal skeletal overgrowth, premature aging, cognitive impairment, neurodegeneration, and a prominent connective tissue component to this complex phenotype. From a functional standpoint, hypermorphic mutations in PDGFRB lead to Kosaki overgrowth syndrome, infantile myofibromatosis (OMIM #228550), and Penttinen syndrome (OMIM #601812), whereas hypomorphic mutations lead to idiopathic basal ganglia calcification (OMIM #615007). In conclusion, a specific class of mutations in PDGFRB causes a clinically recognizable syndromic form of skeletal overgrowth.

WDR45 mutations in three male patients with West syndrome.

West syndrome is an early-onset epileptic encephalopathy characterized by clustered spasms with hypsarrhythmia seen on electroencephalogram (EEG). West syndrome is genetically heterogeneous, and its genetic causes have not been fully elucidated. WD Repeat Domain 45 (WDR45) resides on Xp11.23, and encodes a member of the WD repeat protein interacting with phosphoinositides (WIPI) family, which is crucial in the macroautophagy pathway. De novo mutations in WDR45 cause beta-propeller protein-associated neurodegeneration characterized by iron accumulation in the basal ganglia. In this study, we performed whole exome sequencing of individuals with West syndrome and identified three WDR45 mutations in three independent males (patients 1, 2 and 3). Two novel mutations occurred de novo (patients 1 and 2) and the remaining mutation detected in a male patient (patient 3) and his affected sister was inherited from the mother, harboring the somatic mutation. The three male patients showed early-onset intractable seizures, profound intellectual disability and developmental delay. Their brain magnetic resonance imaging scans showed cerebral atrophy. We found no evidence of somatic mosaicism in the three male patients. Our findings indicate that hemizygous WDR45 mutations in males lead to severe epileptic encephalopathy.

Atypical clinical course in two patients with GNB1 variants who developed acute encephalopathy.

INTRODUCTION: Variants in the GNB1 gene, which encodes the ß1 subunit of a trimeric G protein, can cause moderate to severe psychomotor retardation. Acute encephalopathies have also been observed in patients with central nervous system abnormalities; however, severe neurological sequelae have not previously been reported. CASE PRESENTATIONS: Patient 1 was a Japanese female with a de novo GNB1 variant (c.284 T > C). At 8 months old she contracted influenza A and developed generalized convulsions. In the acute phase, brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) findings indicated acute encephalopathy; diffuse cerebral atrophy was present 1 month later. Although multidisciplinary treatment was administered, she had severe neurological sequelae including spastic tetraplegia, severe intellectual disabilities, and refractory epilepsy. Patient 2 was a Japanese male with a de novo GNB1 variant (c.239 T > C). He experienced an unexplained respiratory arrest aged 17 years; refractory convulsions developed. Brain MRI at 1 month showed bilateral basal ganglia high intensities; at 3 months, diffuse cerebral cortex and white matter atrophy was observed. Despite multidisciplinary treatment, he developed severe spastic tetraplegia and mental regression. DISCUSSION: We report two patients with GNB1 variants who had acute lesions on brain MRI and unexpected disease courses. In such patients with acute neurological deterioration, multidisciplinary treatment is required; patients should also be carefully observed for progression to acute encephalopathy.

Genetic and clinical features of pediatric-onset hereditary spastic paraplegia: a single-center study in Japan.

Background and purpose: Hereditary spastic paraplegias (HSPs) are a set of heterogeneous neurodegenerative disorders characterized by bilateral lower limb spasticity. They may present from infancy onwards at any time. Although next-generation sequencing has allowed the identification of many causative genes, little is known about which genes are specifically associated with pediatric-onset variants. Methods: This study retrospectively evaluated the genetic analyses, family history clinical courses, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) findings, and electrophysiologic findings of patients diagnosed with HSP in childhood at a tertiary pediatric hospital in Japan. Genetic analyses were performed using direct sequencing, disease-associated panels, and whole-exome sequencing. Results: Of the 37 patients included, 14 had a family history of HSP and 23 had a sporadic form of the disease. In 20 patients, HSP was the pure type, whereas the remaining 17 patients had complex types of HSP. Genetic data were available for 11 of the pure-type patients and 16 of those with complex types. Of these, genetic diagnoses were possible in 5 (45%) of the pure-type and 13 (81%) of the complex-type patients. SPAST variants were found in five children, KIF1A variants in four, ALS2 variants in three, SACS and L1CAM variants in two each, and an ATL1 variant in one. One child had a 10p15.3p13 duplication. Four patients with pure-type HSPs had SPAST variants and one had an ALT1 variant. The KIF1A, ALS2, SACS, and L1CAM variants and the 10p15.3p13 duplication were seen in children with complex-type HSPs, with just one complex-type patient having a SPAST variant. The identification of brain abnormalities on MRI was significantly more common among children with complex-type (11 [69%] of 16) than pure-type HSPs (one [5%] of 19) (p < 0.001). Scores on the modified Rankin Scale for Neurologic Disability were also significantly higher among children with complex-type compared with pure-type HSPs (3.5 ± 1.0 vs. 2.1 ± 0.9, p < 0.001). Conclusion: Pediatric-onset HSP was found to be sporadic and genetic in a substantial proportion of patients. The causative gene patterns differed between children with pure-type and complex-type HSPs. The causative roles of SPAST and KIF1A variants in pure-type and complex-type HSPs, respectively, should be explored further.

Association between cerebrospinal fluid parameters and developmental and neurological status in glucose transporter 1 deficiency syndrome.

OBJECTIVE: In glucose transporter 1 deficiency syndrome (Glut1DS), cerebrospinal fluid glucose (CSFG) and CSFG to blood glucose ratio (CBGR) show significant differences among groups classified by phenotype or genotype. The purpose of this study was to investigate the association between these biochemical parameters and Glut1DS severity. METHODS: The medical records of 45 patients who visited Osaka University Hospital between March 2004 and December 2021 were retrospectively examined. Neurological status was determined using the developmental quotient (DQ), assessed using the Kyoto Scale of Psychological Development 2001, and the Scale for the Assessment and Rating of Ataxia (SARA). CSF parameters included CSFG, CBGR, and CSF lactate (CSFL). RESULTS: CSF was collected from 41 patients, and DQ and SARA were assessed in 24 and 27 patients, respectively. Simple regression analysis showed moderate associations between neurological status and biochemical parameters. CSFG resulted in a higher R2 than CBGR in these analyses. CSF parameters acquired during the first year of life were not comparable to those acquired later. CSFL was measured in 16 patients (DQ and SARA in 11 and 14 patients, respectively). Although simple regression analysis also showed moderate associations between neurological status and CSFG and CSFL, the multiple regression analysis for DQ and SARA resulted in strong associations through the use of a combination of CSFG and CSFL as explanatory variables. CONCLUSION: The severity of Glut1DS can be predicted from CSF parameters. Glucose and lactate are independent contributors to the developmental and neurological status in Glut1DS.

Contiguous deletion of SLC6A8 and BAP31 in a patient with severe dystonia and sensorineural deafness.

We report here a 6-year-old boy exhibiting severe dystonia, profound intellectual and developmental disability with liver disease, and sensorineural deafness. A deficient creatine peak in brain (1)H-MR spectroscopy and high ratio of creatine/creatinine concentration in his urine lead us to suspect a creatine transporter (solute carrier family 6, member 8; SLC6A8) deficiency, which was confirmed by the inability to take up creatine into fibroblasts. We found a large ~19 kb deletion encompassing exons 5-13 of SLC6A8 and exons 5-8 of the B-cell receptor-associated protein (BAP31) gene. This case is the first report in which the SLC6A8 and BAP31 genes are both deleted. The phenotype of BAP31 mutations has been reported only as a part of Xq28 deletion syndrome or contiguous ATP-binding cassette, sub-family D, member 1 (ABCD1)/DXS1375E (BAP31) deletion syndrome [MIM ID #300475], where liver dysfunction and sensorineural deafness have been suggested to be attributed to the loss of function of BAP31. Our case supports the idea that the loss of BAP31 is related to liver dysfunction and hearing loss.

Elevation of brain gamma-aminobutyric acid levels is associated with vigabatrin-associated brain abnormalities on magnetic resonance imaging.

OBJECTIVE: Vigabatrin (VGB) is an effective antiseizure medication for West syndrome. It works by irreversibly inhibiting gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) transaminase and increasing central GABA levels. Vigabatrin-associated brain abnormalities on magnetic resonance imaging (VABAM) are an adverse effect of VGB that has only been reported in children, but the pathophysiology of this effect is unknown. In this study, we evaluated the relationship of VGB and brain GABA levels as well as the association between VABAM and GABA. METHODS: For the 15 consecutive pediatric patients treated with VGB, free GABA, glutamine, and glutamate in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and plasma, GABA to creatine and phosphocreatine (Cr) peak ratio (GABA/Cr), glutamine (Gln)/Cr, and glutamate (Glu)/Cr as quantified by proton MR spectroscopy (1H-MRS) were retrospectively examined. GABA/Cr was compared with in-house normal pediatric controls. Differences in the levels of each metabolite in VABAM and non-VABAM cases were also examined. RESULTS: Thirteen of the included subjects underwent magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and 1H-MRS, and two of them presented VABAM; both cases were very-low-birth-weight preterm infants with post-hemorrhagic hydrocephalus. CSF levels of free GABA were significantly higher in VABAM (5.26 ± 1.95 µmol/L) than in non-VABAM (0.59 ± 0.63 µmol/L) cases (P = 0.03). The GABA/Cr was significantly higher in patients with VGB (0.34 ± 0.16) than in pediatric controls (0.20 ± 0.05) (P = 0.02). The GABA/Cr tended to be higher in VABAM (0.48 ± 0.10) than in non-VABAM cases (0.31 ± 0.15) (P = 0.31). SIGNIFICANCE: Elevated brain GABA levels were observed in VABAM patients, suggesting its involvement in the pathogenesis of this condition. In particular, a marked increase in CSF-free GABA was characteristic. Although the elevation of the GABA/Cr is mild, it may be useful for early identification of patients with risk of VABAM.

Assessment of type I interferon signatures in undifferentiated inflammatory diseases: A Japanese multicenter experience.

Purpose: Upregulation of type I interferon (IFN) signaling has been increasingly detected in inflammatory diseases. Recently, upregulation of the IFN signature has been suggested as a potential biomarker of IFN-driven inflammatory diseases. Yet, it remains unclear to what extent type I IFN is involved in the pathogenesis of undifferentiated inflammatory diseases. This study aimed to quantify the type I IFN signature in clinically undiagnosed patients and assess clinical characteristics in those with a high IFN signature. Methods: The type I IFN signature was measured in patients' whole blood cells. Clinical and biological data were collected retrospectively, and an intensive genetic analysis was performed in undiagnosed patients with a high IFN signature. Results: A total of 117 samples from 94 patients with inflammatory diseases, including 37 undiagnosed cases, were analyzed. Increased IFN signaling was observed in 19 undiagnosed patients, with 10 exhibiting clinical features commonly found in type I interferonopathies. Skin manifestations, observed in eight patients, were macroscopically and histologically similar to those found in proteasome-associated autoinflammatory syndrome. Genetic analysis identified novel mutations in the PSMB8 gene of one patient, and rare variants of unknown significance in genes linked to type I IFN signaling in four patients. A JAK inhibitor effectively treated the patient with the PSMB8 mutations. Patients with clinically quiescent idiopathic pulmonary hemosiderosis and A20 haploinsufficiency showed enhanced IFN signaling. Conclusions: Half of the patients examined in this study, with undifferentiated inflammatory diseases, clinically quiescent A20 haploinsufficiency, or idiopathic pulmonary hemosiderosis, had an elevated type I IFN signature.

1p36 deletion syndrome associated with Prader-Willi-like phenotype.

BACKGROUND: 1p36 deletion syndrome is one of the most common subtelomeric deletion syndromes, characterized by moderate to severe mental retardation, characteristic facial appearance, hypotonia, obesity, and seizures. The clinical features often overlap with those of Prader-Willi syndrome (PWS). To elucidate the phenotype-genotype correlation in 1p36 deletion syndrome, two cases involving a PWS-like phenotype were analyzed on molecular cytogenetics. METHODS: Two patients presenting with the PWS-like phenotype but having negative results for PWS underwent fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH). The size of the chromosome 1p36 deletions was characterized using probes of BAC clones based on the University of California, Santa Cruz (UCSC) Genome Browser. RESULTS: PWS was excluded on FISH and methylation-specific polymerase chain reaction. Subsequent FISH using the probe D1Z2 showed deletion of the 1p36.3 region, confirming the diagnosis of 1p36 deletion syndrome. Further analysis characterized the 1p36 deletions as being located between 4.17 and 4.36 Mb in patient 1 and between 4.89 and 6.09 Mb in patient 2. CONCLUSION: Patients with 1p36 deletion syndrome exhibit a PWS-like phenotype and are therefore probably underdiagnosed. The possible involvement of the terminal 4 Mb region of chromosome 1p36 in the PWS-like phenotype is hypothesized.

Clinical characteristics of children and adults with anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis.

OBJECTIVES: To investigate the clinical characteristics of children and adults with anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (anti-NMDAR) encephalitis. METHODS: Patients who tested positive for the anti-NMDAR antibody (by a cell-based assay) in the cerebrospinal fluid were enrolled. They were divided into two groups based on age (<16 years or older). RESULTS: Three children (two males and one female) and four adults (one male and three females) were examined. The age at onset was 3.0 ± 1.41 years (range: 2-5 years) for the children and 31.8 ± 6.80 years (range: 20-36 years) for the adults. The follow-up duration was 82.7 ± 23.80 months (range: 52-110 months) for the children and 61.5 ± 12.54 months (range: 43-78 months) for the adults. Prodromal symptoms such as fever and headache were observed in three adults. Two children received influenza vaccination before the onset of encephalitis. Brain magnetic resonance imaging abnormalities were observed in three children and one adult. Basal ganglia lesions were observed in two children and one adult, and the two children showed dystonia. Two children and one adult without neoplasms experienced recurrences. The modified Rankin Scale scores at the final follow-up tended to be worse in children than in adults. CONCLUSION: Three patients had basal ganglia lesions, and two of them showed dystonia. Dystonia with basal ganglia lesions has been rarely reported in anti-NMDAR encephalitis but should be noted as a significant symptom, which severely affects the activities of daily life.

Expanding the phenotype of COL4A1-related disorders-Four novel variants.

OBJECTIVE: COL4A1 variant causes severe central nervous system (CNS) anomalies, including hydranencephaly. However, the pathogenic mechanism underlying the COL4A1 phenotype remains unclear. Here, we report de novo COL4A1 variants in four Japanese patients with typical or rare CNS involvement and exhibiting diverse phenotypes. METHODS: We identified and enrolled four patients with white matter abnormalities and cerebral structural defects suggestive of cerebrovascular disease. Genetic analysis was performed using panel sequencing. RESULTS: All the patients were perinatally asymptomatic during the infantile period but exhibited developmental delay and growth retardation later. All the patients exhibited CNS symptoms, including psychomotor disability, spastic paralysis, and epilepsy. Brain magnetic resonance imaging revealed hydranencephaly (n = 1), ventriculomegaly (n = 4) associated with cerebral hemorrhage, and atretic encephalocele (n = 1). Three patients had developed congenital cataract, while two had hematuria. We identified two COL4A1 missense variants [exon32:c.2555G > A p.(Gly852Asp), exon40:c.3407G > A p.(Gly1136Asp)] and two in frame variants [exon32:c.2603_2609delinsATCCTGA p.(Ala868_Gly870delinsAspProGlu), exon36:c.3054delinsTGTAGAT p.(Leu1018delinsPheValAsp)]. The in frame variants were associated with severe CNS anomalies, hydranencephaly, and severe ventriculomegaly. Atretic encephalocele has never been reported in individuals with COL4A1 variants. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that COL4A1 variants cause variable CNS symptoms. Association between clinical phenotypes and each COL4A1 variant would clarify their underlying etiologies.

Epilepsy in Christianson syndrome: Two cases of Lennox-Gastaut syndrome and a review of literature.

Christianson syndrome (CS) is an X-linked intellectual disorder caused by mutations in the SLC9A6 gene. Clinical features of CS include an inability to speak, truncal ataxia, postnatal microcephaly, hyperkinesis, and epilepsy. Almost all patients with CS develop drug-resistant epilepsy-its most serious complication. We report two cases of CS with drug-resistant epilpesy associated with the Lennox-Gastaut syndrome (LGS). One patient experienced generalized tonic seizures since 9 months of age with cognitive regression, which evolved to include atonic seizures at the age of 7 years. Electroencephalography (EEG) showed generalized slow spike-wave complexes and generalized paroxysmal fast activity. Seizures remained drug-resistant despite multiple anti-seizure drugs. The second patient experienced generalized tonic seizures since the age of 17 months and arrested development. EEG showed generalized slow spike-wave complexes, with frequent atonic seizures since the age of 6 years. Electrical status epilepticus during slow-wave sleep (ESES) developed at the age of 7 years. Our cases illustrate that CS may cause LGS in addition to other developmental and epileptic encephalopathies of the neonatal and infantile period. We suggest that generalized tonic or tonic-clonic seizures and generalized slow spike-wave complexes in interictal EEG be included as potential electroclinical features of epilepsy in CS.

Serial Magnetic Resonance Imaging and 1H-Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy in GABA Transaminase Deficiency: A Case Report.

Gamma-aminobutyric acid transaminase (GABA-T) deficiency is a rare, autosomal recessive disorder characterized by severe psychomotor retardation, early-onset epileptic encephalopathy, intractable seizures, hypotonia, and hyperreflexia. The disease is caused by mutation in the 4-aminobutyrate aminotransferase (ABAT) gene, which encodes an enzyme involved in GABA catabolism. In this chapter, a 10-year follow-up of GABA-T deficiency in a rare case of a long-term survivor patient is discussed. The patient showed a progression of clinical phases with increasing age. In infancy, the patient developed psychomotor retardation and recurrent encephalopathic episodes associated with febrile illness. In early childhood, the patient presented with refractory involuntary and hyperkinetic movements and dystonic hypertonicity. In childhood, the patient gradually progressed into the chronic stable phase of the condition. Magnetic resonance imaging demonstrated high signal intensity on diffusion-weighted images involving the internal and external capsules and cerebral white matter in infancy which disappeared gradually by the age of 3 years, and showed subsequently diffuse brain atrophy in childhood. Using proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy, GABA levels in the basal ganglia were shown to be markedly elevated at the age of 1-2 years, and subsequently decreased with increasing age (toward 5 years). These findings suggest that the encephalopathic episodes in infancy and clinical severity of involuntary and hyperkinetic movements may be correlated with levels of GABA in the basal ganglia. The high levels of GABA in the cerebrospinal fluid remained unaltered, whereas levels of GABA in the serum decreased during childhood. Further investigation of long-term clinical surveillance may improve the understanding of GABA-T deficiency.

A case of prenatal chronic intestinal pseudo-obstruction associated with Leigh syndrome.

Chronic intestinal pseudo-obstruction (CIPO) is a major sign of mitochondrial disorders. We present the first reported case of fetal bowel dilation associated with Leigh syndrome. The possibility of CIPO should be taken into consideration even when mild fetal bowel dilation is detected.