The vaginal microbiome composition during pregnancy in a region compromising different ethnic origins.

BACKGROUND: The vaginal microbiota plays a significant role in pregnancy outcomes and newborn health. Indeed, the composition and diversity of the vaginal microbiota can vary among different ethnic groups. Our study aimed to investigate the composition of the vaginal microbiome throughout the three trimesters of pregnancy and to identify any potential variations or patterns in the Turkish population compromising mixed ethnicities. METHOD: We conducted a longitudinal study to characterize the vaginal microbiota of pregnant women. The study included a total of 25 participants, and the samples were collected at each trimester: 11-13 weeks, 20-24 weeks and 28-34 weeks gestation. RESULTS: Lactobacillus species were consistently found to be dominant in the vaginal microbiota throughout all trimesters of pregnancy. Among Lactobacillus species, L. crispatus had the highest abundance in all trimesters (40.6%, 40.8% and 44.4%, respectively). L. iners was the second most prevalent species (28.5%, 31% and 25.04, respectively). Our findings reveal that the dominant composition of the vaginal microbiota aligns with the CST-type I, commonly observed in the European population. CONCLUSIONS: This suggests that there are shared mechanisms influencing the microbial communities in the vagina, which are likely influenced by factors such as genetics, lifestyle, and cultural behaviors rather than ethnicity alone. The complex interplay of these factors contributes to the establishment and maintenance of the vaginal microbiota during pregnancy. Understanding the underlying mechanisms and their impact on vaginal health across diverse populations is essential for improving pregnancy outcomes. The study was approved by the Koc University Ethical Committee (no:2019.093.IRB2.030) and registered at the clinical trials.

Effect of Nifedipine Used in the Treatment of the Threat of Preterm Labor on Total Uterine Artery Blood Volume Flow Rate.

PURPOSE: Evaluation of the effect of maternal nifedipine treatment on total uterine artery blood volume flow rate (TVFR). METHODS: In this prospective study, 43 women who were admitted to the Perinatology Department of the University of Health Sciences Etlik Zübeyde Hanim Gynecology Training and Research Hospital, with the diagnosis of the threat of preterm labor, and 40 healthy pregnant women, who were randomly selected as the control group, were evaluated between July 1, 2018, and September 1, 2018. A transabdominal ultrasound examination of uterine arteries was performed both before and 48 hours after administration of oral nifedipine for TVFR measurement. For the final analysis, the TVFR levels of the group diagnosed with the threat of preterm labor and the control group were compared. RESULTS: There was no significant difference in either uterine artery pulsatility index or resistance index values as well as the diameters of the uterine arteries after nifedipine treatment (p>0.05 for all). Total uterine artery blood volume flow rate (TVFR) was 424.66±236.74 mL/min before and 543.39±309.68 mL/min after treatment with nifedipine and was statistically significantly higher (p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Our study showed a statistically significant increase in total uterine artery blood volume flow rate 48 hours after oral nifedipine treatment.

Relations between second-trimester aneuploidy screening results and prediction of labour induction success in term pregnancies.

We aimed to assess whether the second-trimester maternal serum markers could be used for the prediction of labour induction success. This prospective study enrolled women planned labour induction at term. Women were assigned to one of two groups: vaginal prostaglandin or balloon dilatation. All patients were evaluated for Bishop score, maternal serum oestriol, human chorionic gonadotropin and progesterone at the time of second-aneuploidy screening. The total successful rate for induction of labour was 63.9% in both groups. Maternal serum oestriol multiple of median (MoM) values were significantly lower among the caesarean section group compared to the vaginal delivery group (p < .001). A MoM value of 0.74 for oestriol was associated with a sensitivity of 75.9%, specificity of 41.0%, a positive predictive value of 76.6% and a negative predictive value of 58.0% for a successful induction of labour. Oestriol had a good performance in the prediction of successful induction of labour at term.IMPACT STATEMENTWhat is already known on this subject? Induction of labour is a common procedure undertaken whenever the benefits of prompt delivery outweigh the risks of expectant management. Previous studies have reported that a decreased progesterone/oestradiol ratio and increased maternal plasma oestriol levels are associated with successful labour. What the results of this study add? The results of this study showed that second-trimester oestriol multiple of median (MoM) value provide a significant contribution to the efforts of the prediction of successful induction of labour in term pregnancy, having a sensitivity of 69.8%, specificity of 92.4%, positive predictive value of 83.3% and negative predictive value of 82.5%.What the implications are of these findings for clinical practice and/or further research? This finding can be used as an additional method for prediction of labour induction as well as multiparity and Bishop score. This adds new valuable data to the literature which could be used for systematic reviews and for implementing guidelines and protocols on labour induction.

Metabolic Infrastructure of Pregnant Women With Trisomy 21 Fetuses; Metabolomic Analysis.

We aimed to configure impaired/altered metabolomic profiles of pregnant women carrying Down syndrome (DS) fetuses. The study involved 21 and 32 pregnant women with DS and euploid fetuses, respectively, as determined by prenatal screening and diagnosis as part of an antenatal care program. Metabolomic analyses were carried out using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-qTOF-MS) methods. A total of 95 metabolites were identified. GC-MS analysis indicated that levels of 2-hydroxybutyric acid, benzoic acid, nonanoic acid, 3-hydroxybutyric acid, and 2-ketoisocaproic acid were increased in the DS group, where beta-alanine, threonic acid, oxalic acid, alpha-tocopherol, uracil, 2-piperidone, and creatinine were decreased. However, LC-qTOF-MS analysis showed that lipid-related metabolites were decreased in women carrying DS fetuses, whereas creatine, N4-phosphoagmatine, citrate, 2,5-dioxopentanoate, 2-furoate, pyruvate, and fructose levels were increased. Pathway analysis was also performed using metabolites whose levels were significantly altered (p<0.05) between the groups, and the findings indicated that the biosynthesis pathways of aminoacyl-tRNA and "valine-leucine-isoleucine", and metabolism pathways of "glycine-serine-threonine", nitrogen, "alanine-aspartate-glutamate", propanoate, glycerophospholipid, cysteine, methionine, and phenylalanine were significantly altered. Our findings indicate a special type of metabolic status/syndrome in pregnant women with Down syndrome fetuses. It could be speculated that altered metabolic status might influence both gametogenesis and embryogenesis. Down syndrome is a complex genetic disorder that is important to detect prenatally, but may also be prevented by taking necessary precautions prior to pregnancy.

Effect of micronized progesterone on fetal-placental volume in first-trimester threatened abortion.

PURPOSE: To compare the effect of oral micronized progesterone (OMP) on the first-trimester fetal and placental volumes using three-dimensional ultrasonography and extended imaging virtual organ computer-aided analysis (XI VOCAL) method in threatened abortion. METHODS: This randomized controlled trial enrolled women with threatened abortion and a singleton pregnancy from 6-8 6/7 weeks of gestation. A total of 60 women with threatened abortion were randomly assigned to one of two groups: OMP (400 mg/day) (n = 30) and control groups (n = 30). The XI VOCAL method was used for all volume measurements using three-dimensional ultrasonography. All patients were evaluated for fetal, amniotic, and placental volumes during the initial diagnosis and after 4 weeks. RESULTS: After treatment, placental volume difference was significantly higher in the OMP group (336%, 67-1,077) than in the control group (141%, 29-900) (p = 0.007). The mean differences in gestational sac, amniotic sac, and embryonic volumes between the OMP and control groups were not statistically significant. CONCLUSIONS: Hormonal support with OMP is associated with increased placental volume in first-trimester threatened abortion when compared with the control group. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Clin Ultrasound 45:14-19, 2017.

Non-immune hydrops fetalis as a diagnostic and survival problems: what do we tell the parents?

OBJECTIVE: Nonimmune hydrops fetalis (NIHF) is one of the most difficult problems related to pregnancy. The aim of this study was to evaluate the etiological analysis as well as the fetal and neonatal outcomes of NIHF. METHODS: We reviewed the prenatal sonographic data and postnatal medical records of pregnant women diagnosed as NIHF in our hospital between January 2001 and May 2013. All cases were categorized using 12 etiological classification groups. Demographic data, diagnostic laboratory parameters, karyotyping results, sonographic and autopsy findings, postnatal final diagnoses, and perinatal mortality rates were also recorded. RESULTS: This study included 147 cases. The mean gestational age at the time of the initial diagnosis was 23.84±6.30 weeks. Cardiovascular causes were the most common (21.7%), followed by structural abnormalities (17.0%), chromosomal abnormalities (6.8%), and skeletal dysplasias (5.4%). Chromosomal abnormalities were detected in 12.8% of these cases. The most common karyotype abnormality was monosomy X. Postmortem autopsy was performed in 50 (34%) cases, and at least one finding was detected in 40 (80%) of these cases. The overall mortality rate was 78.2%. The gestational week at delivery, birth weight, and Apgar score (1st and 5th min) showed a statistically significant difference between exitus and surviving fetuses (P<0.05). CONCLUSION: NIHF can lead to high perinatal morbidity and mortality, yet its etiopathology remains poorly understood. Early diagnosis of NIHF gives parents an opportunity to make an informed choice about the possible complications of a pregnancy.

Myomectomy during cesarean section and adhesion formation as a long-term postoperative complication.

OBJECTIVES: We aimed to evaluate the incidence and features of postoperative adhesion related complications occurring following myolysis or myomectomy performed during cesarean section (C/S). METHODS: This cross-sectional study consists of four groups of patients who underwent C/S: group I; myolysis is performed by electric cauterization for small superficial fibroids less than 2 cm. (n: 21), group II; myomectomy is performed for pedunculated fibroids (n: 18), group III; myomectomy is performed for intramural/subserous fibroids less than 5 cm. (n: 23), group IV control group (n: 19) who did not go through myomectomy Repeat C/S is performed to study subjects within 1-5 years. All cases are evaluated in terms of mild to moderate adhesions between omentum and uterus, mild to moderate adnexial area adhesions, mild to moderate incision area adhesions and surgical difficulty due to severe adhesions. RESULTS: The incidence of adhesions of omentum and uterus (p= 0.278), mild to moderate adnexial area adhesions (p = 0.831), mild to moderate incision area adhesions (p= 0.804) were similar between the intervention groups (group I, II, and III) and the controls (group IV). CONCLUSION: Cesarean myomectomy is a safe procedure and can be performed without significant postoperative adhesion formation.

Ultrasonographic measurement of amniochorionic membrane in asymptomatic pregnant women is not a useful tool for preterm birth prediction.

AIM: The objective of this study was to determine the accuracy of ultrasonographic measurement of amniochorionic membrane thickness (AMT) in the prediction of preterm birth among an asymptomatic pregnant population. METHODS: One hundred and ninety consecutive singleton pregnant women presenting for prenatal care between May 2010 and August 2011 were recruited for the study. AMT of the patients was measured once between 18 and 22 weeks of gestation and then again between 28 and 32 weeks of gestation with transabdominal ultrasound. The results of measurements were recorded and compared with the perinatal outcome related to prematurity. RESULTS: Thirteen of the 190 births were preterm. The mean AMT of the pregnant women who delivered at term were 0.79 ± 0.23 mm in the second trimester and 0.88 ± 0.27 mm in the third trimester. The mean AMT of pregnant women who delivered preterm were 0.77 ± 0.27 mm in the second trimester and 0.91 ± 0.20 mm in the third trimester. There were no statistically significant differences between the second and third trimester AMT of the preterm delivery group and term delivery group (P = 0.542 and P = 0.448, respectively). CONCLUSION: In this study, ultrasonographic measurement of fetal membranes was not found to be a useful marker for prediction of preterm birth. The findings of our study may help in understanding ultrasonographic changes in fetal membranes in normal pregnancies.

Pregnancy outcome of five patients with renal amyloidosis regarding familial Mediterranean fever.

Familial Mediterranean fever (FMF) is an autosomal recessive disease affecting mainly patients of the Mediterranean basin and its major complication is the development of renal AA amyloidosis. On the other hand pregnancy with amyloidosis is not common; nevertheless, amyloidosis will complicate pregnancies also with the underlying disease and may cause terrible perinatal morbidities and mortalities. We report here the cases of five pregnant women and their pregnancy outcomes, who have been diagnosed with FMF complicated by renal amyloidosis. In the five cases, we observed that increased pregnancy complication such as small for gestational age, intrauterine growth restriction, preeclampsia and preterm birth.

Is chlorine and sodium levels in the amniotic fluid a new marker for fetal lung maturation and RDS severity?

BACKGROUND: Amniotic fluid (AF) is a dynamic liquid whose contents vary according to the needs of the fetus. Levels of the amniotic components have been used in numerous studies as potential biomarkers to screen pregnancy-related abnormalities. As a reflection of Na+ and Cl- levels of fetal lung fluid, amniotic fluid's Na+ and Cl- levels can be used as an indicator of lung maturation in the newborn period. This study aimed to investigate whether Na+ and Cl- levels in the amniotic fluid would be a new marker to determine the severity of respiratory distress and pulmonary maturation in the newborn. METHODS: This prospective cohort study was conducted at Hacettepe University Neonatal Intensive Care Unit. One hundred twenty single infants who were delivered with the cesarean section between January 2015 and March 2016 were included. Na+ and Cl- levels were measured from AF. RESULTS: There were 46 of 120 infants (33.3%) in Group-1 and 74 infants (66.7%) in Group-2. Na + and Cl- levels of the AF of Group-1 were higher than Group 2 and this was statistically significant (p < .001/p: .01, respectively). Na+ and Cl- levels of the AF were significantly higher in infants who needed surfactant (p < .001/p: .001, respectively). CONCLUSION: Our results showed that Na+ and Cl- levels of the AF can be used as an indicator of infant lung maturation.

Placental deficiency during maternal SARS-CoV-2 infection.

INTRODUCTION: Maternal anti-SARS-CoV-2 Spike antibodies can cross the placenta during pregnancy, and neonates born to infected mothers have acquired antibodies at birth. Few studies reported data on the histopathological changes of the placenta during infection and placental infection. SARS-CoV-2 infection may cause impaired development of the placenta, thus predisposing maternal and fetal unfavorable outcomes. The prospective study aims to evaluate the risk of vertical transmission of SARS-CoV-2 and placental passage of anti-Spike antibodies as well as the impact of clinical severity on placental structures. METHODS: This is a prospective cohort study on 30 pregnant women infected by SARS-CoV-2 with their neonates. The demographic features and pregnancy outcomes were collected. Gross and microscopic examinations of the placentas were done. Maternal and umbilical cord sera were obtained at the time of delivery. Nasopharyngeal swabs were collected from neonates immediately after birth. RESULTS: The concentrations of total anti-SARS-CoV-2 Spike antibodies were higher in pregnant women with moderate to severe/critical disease. The maternal total anti-SARS-CoV-2 Spike levels were correlated with those of neonatal levels. The rate of placental abnormalities is high in the mothers with severe disease, and those with positive anti-SARS-CoV-2 IgM. All neonates had negative nasopharyngeal swabs for SARS- CoV-2 infections and all placentas were negative in immunohistochemical staining for Spike protein. DISCUSSION: The maternally derived anti-SARS-CoV-2 Spike antibody can transmit to neonates born to infected mothers regardless of gestational age. Our results indicated that the disease severity is associated with ischemic placental pathology which may result in adverse pregnancy outcomes.

Maternal and fetal thiol/disulfide homeostasis in fetal growth restriction.

PURPOSE: To evaluate thiol/disulfide homeostasis in both maternal and fetal compartment in the presence of fetal growth restriction (FGR). MATERIALS AND METHODS: A prospective case-control study was carried out in women with FGR (n: 40) or normally growing fetus (n: 40). FGR was defined as estimated fetal weight below the 10th percentile for the gestational age. Maternal serum and fetal cord blood samples were collected from all participants and native thiol-disulfide exchanges were examined with automated method enabling the measurement of both sides of thiol-disulfide balance. RESULTS: Native thiol, total thiol and disulfide amounts were decreased in the maternal serum and fetal cord blood of babies born to women with FGR (p < .05). The most sensitive marker was maternal native thiol (82.5, 95% confidence interval, 67.22-92.66%), while the maternal total thiol had highest specificity value (77.5, 95% confidence interval, 61.55-89.16%). CONCLUSIONS: Maternal and fetal serum thiol/disulfide profiles may use prediction of FGR severity and its neonatal outcome.

Methylenetetrahydrofolate Reductase Polymorphisms and Pregnancy Outcome.

Introduction Aim of the study was to evaluate the effect of methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) polymorphisms on pregnancy outcome. Materials and Methods A total of 617 pregnancies of women who were investigated for MTHFR C677T and A1298C polymorphisms prior to pregnancy were included in the study. Cases were classified into "homozygous polymorphisms" (Group I), "heterozygous polymorphisms" (Group II), and patients without polymorphisms who functioned as controls (Group III). Patients with polymorphisms were assigned to a specific protocol at least 3 months before becoming pregnant. Administration of low molecular weight heparin (LMWH) was started very early during pregnancy. The Beksac Obstetrics Index (BOI) was used to estimate the obstetric risk levels for the different groups. Results We found that the early pregnancy loss (EPL) rate increased as MTHFR polymorphism complexity increased and that the early EPL rate was significantly higher in patients with MTHFR C677T polymorphism compared to patients with MTHFR A1298C polymorphism (p = 0.039). There were significant differences between the previous pregnancies of the patients in the 3 study groups in terms of perinatal complications and EPLs (p = 0.003 and p = 0.019). The BOI decreased as the severity of polymorphisms increased. An association between MTHFR polymorphisms and congenital malformations and chromosomal abnormalities was observed. We could not demonstrate any statistically significant difference between study groups when the 3 groups were compared with regard to the pregnancy outcomes under specific management protocols. Conclusion MTHFR polymorphisms are potential risk factors for adverse pregnancy outcomes.

Differential expression of leukemia inhibitory factor and insulin like growth factor-1 between normal pregnancies, partial hydatidiform moles and complete hydatidiform moles.

INTRODUCTION: Leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) and insulin like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) are two of the most important growth factors mediating trophoblast actions. We hypothesized that the localization and expression patterns of LIF and IGF-1 in partial and complete hydatidiform moles (HM) compared with normal first trimester placentas may provide an understanding of the proliferative processes in HMs. METHODS: The study population included curettage material of women diagnosed as complete or partial HM as a result of histopathological and immunohistochemical examination (complete HM group, n = 8; partial HM group, n = 8) and women undergoing dilatation&curettage for unwanted pregnancies (control group, n = 8). Expression of LIF and IGF-1 among placental cell groups was evaluated immunohistochemically and given a score depending on immunostaining intensity. RESULTS: In normal chorionic villi strong expression of LIF and IGF-1 was present. Both LIF and IGF-1 expressions were weaker in the chorionic villi of complete HMs. In complete mole decidua there was a significant decrease in glandular and endothelial IGF-1 expression along with a decrease in decidual cell LIF expression compared to normal first trimester decidua. LIF expression in extravillous trophoblasts was stronger in complete molar placentas compared to normal placentas. DISCUSSION: LIF and IGF-1 are important regulators of trophoblast proliferation and invasion. Differential expression of LIF and IGF-1 in molar trophoblasts and chorionic villi might have a role in regulation of trophoblasts in complete moles. Decreased expression of glandular IGF-1 and decidual LIF might be related to the decidual changes during trophoblastic proliferation and invasion of decidua in complete HMs.

Relationship of maternal mean platelet volume with fetal Doppler parameters and neonatal complications in pregnancies with and without intrauterine growth restriction.

OBJECTIVE: In this study, we investigated the relationship of mean platelet volume (MPV) with the presence and the severity of intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) and with neonatal complications. METHODS: The pregnancies with and without IUGR, that were followed-up in our hospital between 2003 and 2009 were analyzed retrospectively. Pregnancies which resulted in birth of a newborn with a birthweight less than 10th percentile for the gestational age were selected for IUGR group. IUGR cases were divided into three groups according to the Doppler parameters. RESULTS: There was no significant difference between the MPV values in the groups. There was no association between MPV and Doppler parameters that can be used in predicting the severity of IUGR. There was no significant relation between MPV and the perinatal complications such as intracranial hemorrhage (ICH), bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD), necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC), the development of sepsis, postpartum exitus (PPEX) and intrauterine exitus (IUEX). Higher MPV values were associated with hospitalization in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) and respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) in the IUGR group. CONCLUSION: Analysis of MPV is a simple and readily available laboratory test. Prospective researches employing standard measurement technics are required to clarify the relationship between MPV and IUGR.

Antenatal diagnosis and outcome of agenesis of corpus callosum: A retrospective review of 33 cases.

OBJECTIVE: To present antenatal sonographic findings and postnatal outcome of a population of foetuses diagnosed with agenesis of corpus callosum. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The database of our ultrasound laboratory was retrospectively searched for cases of agenesis of the corpus callosum suspected at antenatal sonography between 2002 and 2012. The following variables were assessed: maternal age, gestational age at diagnosis, gender, any additional cerebral and extra-cerebral malformations, results of karyotype analysis and pregnancy and foetal/neonatal outcomes. RESULTS: During the study period, 33 foetuses with agenesis of the corpus callosum were identified antenatally, with a male preponderance. The mean maternal age was 28.48 years. In all cases, pre/postnatal MRI and/or necropsy were performed in order to confirm the diagnosis. Among those, there were additional brain findings in 23 (69.7%) and additional extra-cerebral anomalies in 3 (9.1%) foetuses. Karyotype analysis was performed in 21 of 33 (63.6%) cases. As for pregnancy outcome, the pregnancy was terminated in 14 (42.4%) of the remaining 19 foetuses; eighteen (54.5%) were delivered near term and one (3.1%) who was delivered prematurely died during the neonatal period. CONCLUSION: The diagnosis of congenital brain malformation is a challenging issue, since additional findings have a considerable effect on prognosis; detailed examination with genetic counselling should be performed.

Vaginoperineal Fistula as a Complication of Perianal Surgery in a Patient with Sjögren's Syndrome: A Case Report.

Forty-seven-year-old woman with Sjögren's syndrome had been operated on because of transsphincteric perianal fistula secondary to perianal abscess. Vaginal wall injury occurred during the course of the operation and injured tissue was repaired primarily. Three months later, patient suffered from the recurrence of perianal fistula symptoms and fistulectomy was performed once again under antibiotic suppression. Several months later, perineal discharge continued, and, therefore, patient was admitted to the hospital for the third time and a fistulotomy was performed. Two months after the third operation, patient was admitted with leukorrhea and a perineovaginal fistula was detected. This time, not only her surgical problem but also her immune system disorder was considered in the preoperative workup. Then, patient was hospitalized for the fourth time and "fistulectomy/perineoplasty" was performed successfully. We believe that patients with autoimmune disorders with or without medical treatment may have healing problems during the course of surgical processes and therefore such medical problems must be taken into consideration by the surgeons.

Integration of three-dimensional ultrasonography in the prenatal diagnosis of amniotic band syndrome: A case report.

Amniotic band syndrome is a rare disorder which is thought to be caused by early rupture of the amniotic membrane. The extent of the disease may vary from minor digital amputations to severe lethal anomalies. For many years in routine clinical practice, this syndrome has been diagnosed with two-dimensional ultrasonography. Evolving imaging techniques by means of three-dimensional ultrasonography gives the chance of early and accurate diagnosis of this devastating anomaly. By integrating three-dimensional ultrasonography to the suspected findings diagnosed in the two-dimensional ultrasonography allows us to predict possible outcomes and provides convenience in counselling. Herein we present a case of amniotic band syndrome diagnosed at 19 weeks of gestation with three-dimensional ultrasonography and pregnancy was terminated in the 20th week. Using three-dimensional ultrasonography in certain suspected foetal anomalies may provide the early diagnosis and more accurate knowledge about extent of the disease.

Pregnancy-associated breast cancer: clinicopathological characteristics of 20 cases with a focus on identifiable causes of diagnostic delay.

BACKGROUND: The primary objective of this study was to evaluate the clinicopathological characteristics of patients with pregnancy-associated breast cancer (PABC), with a special focus on diagnostic delays and the identifiable causes of diagnostic delays. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Clinicopathological data of patients treated for PABC between 2003 and 2012 at Hacettepe University Hospital was retrospectively reviewed. RESULTS: 20 patients with PABC were included. The pathological examination revealed predominance of invasive ductal carcinoma (80%), grade III tumors (65%) and advanced-stage (III-IV) disease (75%). In 8 patients (40%), there was a diagnostic delay between occurrence of the presenting symptoms and the initiation of breast mass workup. For these 8 patients, the main identifiable causes of diagnostic delay were the attribution of disease-related symptoms to pregnancy or lactation in 5 (63%) and negligence of symptoms in 2 (25%). CONCLUSIONS: PABC mostly presents with advanced-stage disease, and there can be a substantial diagnostic delay before these patients receive treatment. Preconceptional, gestational and postpartum examination of women of reproductive age should include a thorough breast examination and should provide adequate information regarding the physiological changes in breast tissue and the possible pathological symptoms.