G-protein signaling abnormalities mediated by CD95 in salivary epithelial cells.

Salivary epithelial cells from patients with primary Sjögren's syndrome (SS) undergo Fas-mediated apoptosis. Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL are apoptosis suppressing oncogenes. Very little is known about the role of these oncogene molecules in salivary epithelial cells. To investigate the possible prevention of salivary glandular destruction in SS by Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL, stable transfectants expressing these molecules were made from HSY cells, a human salivary epithelial cell line. HSY cells were transfected with an expression vector for human Bcl-2 or Bcl-xL. Stable transfectants were selected and apoptosis was induced by anti-Fas antibody. Apoptosis was quantified by propidium iodide staining followed by flow cytometry. Caspase activity was detected by immunohistochemical analysis and enzyme cleavage of DEVD-AMC, a fluorescent substrate. Response to carbachol, a muscarinic receptor agonist, and EGF was measured by Ca2+ mobilization and influx. Fas-mediated apoptosis was significantly inhibited in Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL transfectants compared to wild-type and control transfectants (empty vector). Surprisingly, caspase activity was not inhibited in Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL transfectants. Activation of the Fas pathway in the Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL transfectants by antibody also inhibited carbachol and EGF responsiveness (i.e., Ca2+ mobilization and/or influx) by 50-60%. This Fas-mediated inhibition of cell activation was partially or completely restored by specific peptide interference of caspase enzyme activity. The prevention of Fas-mediated apoptosis by the overexpression of Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL in salivary gland epithelial cells results in injured cells expressing caspase activity and unable to respond normally to receptor agonists. Such damaged cells may exist in SS patients and could explain the severe dryness out of proportion to the actual number of apoptotic cells seen on salivary gland biopsy.

Fas-mediated apoptosis in a rat acinar cell line is dependent on caspase-1 activity.

Apoptosis plays an important role in the dysfunction of exocrine glands. Fas is a death-inducing receptor found on many types of cells including epithelial acinar cells. To elucidate the intracellular mechanism of Fas-mediated cell death in exocrine glands, an epithelial acinar cell line, SMG-C6, was studied. Caspase-1, -3, -8, and -9 activities were elevated in SMG-C6 cells after the induction of apoptosis by soluble Fas ligand (FasL). The activation of caspase-1 and -8 occurred prior to caspase-3 and -9 activation. The caspase-1 inhibitor, zYVAD-fmk, was effective in preventing cell death, whereas the caspase-3 and -8 inhibitors (ac-DEVD-CHO and ac-IETD-CHO, respectively) were not. zYVAD-fmk was able to inhibit caspase-3 activation indicating that caspase-1 is upstream to caspase-3. Furthermore, kinetic studies show that caspase-1 is an early event in the Fas apoptotic pathway. This study shows that caspase-1 participates in Fas-mediated apoptosis of epithelial cells by initiating the caspase cascade.

Inappropriate apoptosis of salivary and lacrimal gland epithelium of immunodeficient NOD-scid mice.

OBJECTIVE: The lesion is Sjögren's syndrome consists of lymphocytic infiltration and has a pathology characteristic of the potential apoptotic death of salivary gland secretory epithelial cells. To examine the role of the glandular epithelial cells in the pathogenesis of autoimmune exocrinopathy, we studied Fas and Fas ligand (FasL) expression and quantitated the levels of apoptosis in salivary and lacrimal glands from NOD and NOD-scid mice, an animal model that develops a Sjögren's syndrome-like pathology. METHODS: The parotid, submandibular and lacrimal tissues of NOD, NOD-scid, and BALB/c mice were evaluated by immunohistochemical analysis for the expression of Fas and FasL. Nuclear fragmentation of DNA from the epithelial cells of exocrine tissues was evaluated by the terminal UTP nucleotide end labeling method (TUNEL). Messenger RNA was isolated from 8 and 18 week old mice and was analyzed by the reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) for the expression of Fas and FasL. RESULTS: We found suggestive evidence that apoptosis of the secretory epithelial cells occurs in both NOD and NOD-scid mice despite the lack of T- and B-lymphocytes in the latter. FasL mRNA and cell surface protein were expressed in salivary and lacrimal gland epithelial cells from 8 and 18 week old NOD, NOD-scid, and BALB/c mice. Fas protein and mRNA were expressed only in the exocrine glands from 18 week old NOD and NOD-scid mice. Glandular secretory epithelial cell apoptosis was elevated in both NOD and NOD-scid mice, however; there was little evidence of apoptosis in the control strain of BALB/c mice. CONCLUSION: These results suggest a potential apoptotic process dependent on Fas:FasL interactions occurring in NOD-scid glandular secretory epithelial cells in the absence of lymphocytic infiltration.

TGF-beta1 null mutation leads to CD154 upregulated expression in affected tissues.

The TGF-beta1(-/-) mouse is a murine model for systemic autoimmune disease. The aim of this study is to elucidate the immunological mechanism that leads to multifocal tissue inflammation and autoantibody production in TGF-beta1(-/-) mice. Heart, lung, liver, and salivary gland from TGF-beta1(-/-) were assessed for CD154 expression by RT-PCR and immunohistochemistry. Compared to wild-type littermates, CD154 expression was elevated in all tissues studied. Furthermore, IL-12 mRNA was expressed in the salivary gland and heart of TGF-beta1(-/-) mice and not in wild-type littermates. This suggests that the CD154 pathway is activated in these tissues. This shows that TGF-beta1 regulates CD154 expression leading to spontaneous IL-12 production and autoimmunity.

Binding of nuclear proteins to the negative regulatory element of the IL-2 gene in lymphocytes from rheumatic patients.

T lymphocytes from several autoimmune diseases including rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) exhibit deficient mitogenic response in terms of proliferation and IL-2 production. The expression of the IL-2 gene is regulated by various transcription factors. One of these factors suppresses IL-2 expression and binds to the negative responsive element in the IL-2 gene 5' flanking region (NRE-A). The authors hypothesized that the decreased production of IL-2 by T cells from RA and SLE patients is at least partially caused by high expression of the NRE-A binding protein. To test this hypothesis T cells from healthy donors and patients with RA and SLE were stimulated. Using the electrophoretic mobility shift assay we detected NRE-A DNA-binding proteins in the nuclei of the stimulated cells. No difference was found between NRE-A DNA binding in nuclear extracts of T cells taken from healthy donors and those taken from patients. The specificity of the DNA-protein interactions was ascertained through the use of unlabeled DNA competitors. No correlation was found between DNA-binding and the patients' disease duration or medication. In conclusion, decreased IL-2 biosynthesis by T lymphocytes from RA and SLE patients can not be explained by abnormal expression of the NRE-A DNA-binding protein.

Monocyte rescue of human T cells from apoptosis is CD40/CD154 dependent.

The induction of T-cell apoptosis is regulated in part by monocytes (CD14+ cells). Human peripheral blood monocytes inhibited the spontaneous cell death of activated T cells in vitro. The inhibition of T-cell apoptosis did not require autologous monocytes. Inhibition required direct contact with monocytes and was not due to a soluble factor. Furthermore, treatment of monocytes with actinomycin D, cycloheximide and paraformaldehyde abrogated the anti-apoptotic activity of these cells. Blocking antibody to CD40 and CD154 (CD40 ligand) decreased the ability of monocytes to aid in T-cell survival, whereas, blocking LFA-1/I-CAM-1, Fas ligand and the CD4/major histocompatibility complex class II interaction did not affect the influence of monocytes on T-cell survival. This shows that monocytes rescue of activated T cells from apoptosis is dependent upon CD40/CD154 interaction.

Induction of transcription factors in human T lymphocytes by aspirin-like drugs.

Aspirin-like drugs (ALD) induce calcium mobilization, an essential component of T cell activation, but do not induce the biosynthesis of IL-2. To understand the extent to which ALD may mimic mitogenic stimulation, we studied cytoplasmic and nuclear signaling steps in ALD-treated T cells. We found that ALD induce a transient activation of protein kinase (PKC) but have no effect (in comparison to anti-CD3 antibodies) on protein tyrosine phosphorylation nor on PCL gamma 1 tyrosine phosphorylation. ALD-induced calcium mobilization and PKC activation are independent of tyrosine protein kinase activity as shown by the lack of effect of herbimycin, a tyrosine-protein kinase-specific inhibitor. Although we detected no IL-2 mRNA in ALD-treated cells, the nuclei of these cells contain proteins capable of binding to three regulatory sequences in the IL-2 promoter region: NFAT, NF kappa B, and AP-1. These binding activities are expressed only in activated T cells. The expression of AP-1 depended on calcium mobilization and PKC activation. These data suggest that ALD cause transient but significant changes in T cell transmembrane signaling, although some events induced by stimulation with anti-CD3 antibodies are not induced by ALD. The signal is transmitted to the nucleus and induces DNA-binding activity by several transcription factors. However, the ALD stimulus is not capable of causing complete T cell activation.

Abnormality of Oct-1 DNA binding in T cells from Sjögren's syndrome patients.

Primary Sjögren's syndrome (SS) is an autoimmune rheumatic disease characterized by T cell hypoactivity. To understand the diminished T cell response to activation signals, we measured nucleoprotein DNA-binding activities regulating gene expression during T cell activation using the electrophoretic mobility shift assay. Peripheral blood lymphocytes from 9/19 SS patients were found to be defective in their ability to bind an october sequence (Oct-1). This Oct-1-binding phenotype remained stable in culture for up to 3 days prior to activation. This abnormality was not seen in resting T cells nor T cells from patients with systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis (RA), or SS accompanied by RA. The SS Oct-1 DNA-binding abnormality correlated significantly with an inability of cells to exit the Gzero/G1 cell cycle phase when stimulated in vitro. Importantly, nucleoprotein extracts showing decreased DNA-binding activity had normal amounts of Oct-1 proteins as determined by immunoprecipitation, implying a functional defect in the Oct-1 protein. Moreover, defective DNA binding was corrected by treatment with acid phosphatase.

Activated caspase 3 and cleaved poly(ADP-ribose)polymerase in salivary epithelium suggest a pathogenetic mechanism for Sjögren's syndrome.

OBJECTIVE: Apoptosis is an organized energy-dependent process of cellular self-destruction carried out by proteolytic enzymes such as the caspases. These enzymes may play a role in epithelial cell apoptosis in Sjögren's syndrome (SS). A classical caspase substrate is poly(ADP-ribose)polymerase (PARP), a DNA repair enzyme. To elucidate the molecular mechanisms responsible for salivary gland dysfunction in SS, we studied the expression of caspase and PARP in SS salivary gland biopsies. METHODS: The presence of activated caspases (caspases 3 and 9) and cleaved PARP (85 kDa) in SS biopsies was demonstrated by immunohistochemistry using specific polyclonal antibodies. RESULTS: Initial studies performed with an antibody reagent that recognizes both active and inactive forms of caspase 3 identified this enzyme in SS salivary ductal and acinar cells. Activated caspase 3 and cleaved PARP were strongly expressed in ductal and acinar cells in SS salivary glands (13/15). Ductal and acinar cells from normal salivary glands (n=5) stained with less intensity compared with SS tissue. Staining for activated caspase 9 was negative in all samples. Likewise, infiltrating lymphocytes were negative for caspase 3, caspase 9 and cleaved PARP. CONCLUSION: This study shows that caspase 3 is important in the salivary dysfunction of SS, while caspase 9 appears not to be involved.

Longitudinal exposure of human T lymphocytes to weak oxidative stress suppresses transmembrane and nuclear signal transduction.

Products of polyamine oxidase activity, at micromolar levels and during a period of 2 to 3 days, down-regulate IL-2 mRNA levels and activity in human lymphocytes. We studied whether this suppression was associated with signal transduction abnormalities. We found that polyamine oxidase activity suppresses both anti-CD3-induced IL-2 production and protein tyrosine phosphorylation. Polyamine oxidase activity also caused a reduction in intracellular calcium mobilization after mitogenic stimulation. The most distal step of CD3-mediated signal transduction is dependent upon transcription factors that regulate a set of genes, including IL-2. We found that polyamine oxidase-treated cells exhibited very low DNA binding activity of two such factors: NFAT and NF-kappa B. On the other hand, AP-1 DNA binding activity was enhanced in polyamine oxidase-treated cells, suggesting a possible role for AP-1 in the human lymphocyte stress response. In accordance with the oxidation dependence of this suppressive mechanism, N-acetylcysteine (NAC; an antioxidant) significantly reversed the polyamine oxidase effects on lymphokine production and signal transduction. These results suggest that NAC contributes, under oxidizing conditions, to the preservation of immune function. In summary, our data suggest that chronic low-level oxidative stress, via suppression of mitogen-induced transmembrane signaling (protein-tyrosine phosphorylation and calcium mobilization), causes a decrease in the DNA binding activity of transcription factors that regulate the IL-2 gene. This results in decreased IL-2 production.

Bcl-2 family expression in salivary glands from patients with primary Sjögren's syndrome: involvement of Bax in salivary gland destruction.

To investigate the molecular mechanism of glandular parenchyma destruction in Sjögren's syndrome (SS), Bcl-2, Bax, Bcl-X, and Bak expression were studied. SS (n = 18) and control salivary glands (n = 6) were examined by immunohistochemistry. Apoptosis was assessed by in situ DNA nick end labeling. Infiltrating mononuclear cells in the SS salivary gland showed elevated Bcl-2. These mononuclear cells expressed increased Bax but did not undergo apoptosis. Both SS and control salivary gland ductal epithelial cells expressed Bcl-2, Bax, and Bcl-X. SS, but not normal, salivary gland acinar cells expressed Bax and underwent apoptosis. These results suggest that elevated Bax expression in SS salivary gland acinar cells may play an important role in the apoptotic pathway. In contrast, Bcl-2 expression in SS infiltrating mononuclear cells and ductal cells may contribute to their survival.

Fas (CD95)-transduced signal preferentially stimulates lupus peripheral T lymphocytes.

Fas (CD95) is a cell surface receptor whose biological function in circulating peripheral T cells is not well understood. To address the question of abnormal T cell sensitivity to Fas stimulation in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), we studied Fas-transduced stimulation and apoptosis in peripheral blood T cells from patients with SLE and normal control. Immobilized anti-Fas monoclonal antibodies (mAb) (imCH-11; IgM type) significantly stimulated SLE T cell proliferation compared to T cells from normal donors and patients with rheumatoid arthritis (p < 0.003 and p < 0.005, respectively). The soluble form of CH-11 and other immobilized anti-Fas mAb (UB-2, ZB-4; IgG type) failed to stimulate lupus T cells while immobilized human Fas ligand did. Furthermore, imCH-11 induced IL-2 and IL-6 mRNA expression. However, imCH-11 activation failed to induce expression of the T cell activation surface molecules CD25 and CD69. Addition of exogenous ceramide, a second messenger for Fas-mediated apoptosis signaling, also induced T cell proliferation in SLE and normal controls. Moreover, fumonisin B1, a specific ceramide synthase inhibitor, and caspase inhibitors markedly suppressed imCH-11 induced T cell proliferation, suggesting that the ceramide pathway may be involved in Fas-transduced stimulation signals in SLE T cells. These results show that SLE T cells have an alteration in the Fas signal transduction pathway leading to cell proliferation. This defect may be important in Fas-mediated peripheral immune homeostasis.