The flight response impairs cytoprotective mechanisms by activating the insulin pathway.

An animal's stress response requires different adaptive strategies depending on the nature and duration of the stressor. Whereas acute stressors, such as predation, induce a rapid and energy-demanding fight-or-flight response, long-term environmental stressors induce the gradual and long-lasting activation of highly conserved cytoprotective processes1-3. In animals across the evolutionary spectrum, continued activation of the fight-or-flight response weakens the animal's resistance to environmental challenges4,5. However, the molecular and cellular mechanisms that regulate the trade-off between the flight response and long-term stressors are poorly understood. Here we show that repeated induction of the flight response in Caenorhabditis elegans shortens lifespan and inhibits conserved cytoprotective mechanisms. The flight response activates neurons that release tyramine, an invertebrate analogue of adrenaline and noradrenaline. Tyramine stimulates the insulin-IGF-1 signalling (IIS) pathway and precludes the induction of stress response genes by activating an adrenergic-like receptor in the intestine. By contrast, long-term environmental stressors, such as heat or oxidative stress, reduce tyramine release and thereby allow the induction of cytoprotective genes. These findings demonstrate that a neural stress hormone supplies a state-dependent neural switch between acute flight and long-term environmental stress responses and provides mechanistic insights into how the flight response impairs cellular defence systems and accelerates ageing.

Impaired renal function and development in Belgrade rats.

Belgrade rats carry a disabling mutation in the iron transporter divalent metal transporter 1 (DMT1). Although DMT1 plays a major role in intestinal iron absorption, the transporter is also highly expressed in the kidney, where its function remains unknown. The goal of this study was to characterize renal physiology of Belgrade rats. Male Belgrade rats died prematurely with ∼50% survival at 20 wk of age. Necropsy results indicated marked glomerular nephritis and chronic end-stage renal disease. By 15 wk of age, Belgrade rats displayed altered renal morphology associated with sclerosis and fibrosis. Creatinine clearance was significantly lower compared with heterozygote littermates. Urinary biomarkers of kidney injury, including albumin, fibrinogen, and kidney injury molecule-1, were significantly elevated. Pilot morphological studies suggest that nephrogenesis is delayed in Belgrade rat pups due to their low iron status and fetal growth restriction. Such defects in renal development most likely underlie the compromised renal metabolism observed in adult b/b rats. Belgrade rat kidney nonheme iron levels were not different from controls but urinary iron and transferrin levels were higher. These results further implicate an important role for the transporter in kidney function not only in iron reabsorption but also in glomerular filtration of the serum protein.

The neurohormone tyramine stimulates the secretion of an Insulin-Like Peptide from the intestine to modulate the systemic stress response in C. elegans.

The DAF-2/insulin/insulin-like growth factor signaling (IIS) pathway plays an evolutionarily conserved role in regulating reproductive development, lifespan, and stress resistance. In C. elegans , DAF-2/IIS signaling is modulated by an extensive array of insulin-like peptides (ILPs) with diverse spatial and temporal expression patterns. However, the release dynamics and specific functions of these ILPs in adapting to different environmental conditions remain poorly understood. Here, we show that the ILP, INS-3, plays a crucial role in modulating the response to different types of stressors in C. elegans . ins-3 mutants display increased resistance to both heat and oxidative stress; however, under favorable conditions, this advantage is countered by slower reproductive development. ins-3 expression in both neurons and the intestine is downregulated in response to environmental stressors. Conversely, the neurohormone tyramine, which is released during the acute flight response, triggers an upregulation in ins-3 expression. Moreover, we found that tyramine negatively impacts environmental stress resistance by stimulating the release of INS-3 from the intestine. The subsequent release of INS-3 systemically activates the DAF-2 pathway, resulting in the inhibition of cytoprotective mechanisms mediated by DAF-16/FOXO and HSF-1. These studies offer mechanistic insights into the brain-gut communication pathway that weighs adaptive strategies to respond to acute and long-term stress scenarios.

Glucose metabolism in the Belgrade rat, a model of iron-loading anemia.

The iron-diabetes hypothesis proposes an association between iron overload and glucose metabolism that is supported by a number of epidemiological studies. The prevalence of type 2 diabetes in patients with hereditary hemochromatosis and iron-loading thalassemia supports this hypothesis. The Belgrade rat carries a mutation in the iron transporter divalent metal transporter 1 (DMT1) resulting in iron-loading anemia. In this study, we characterized the glycometabolic status of the Belgrade rat. Belgrade rats displayed normal glycemic control. Insulin signaling and secretion were not impaired, and pancreatic tissue did not incur damage despite high levels of nonheme iron. These findings suggest that loss of DMT1 protects against oxidative damage to the pancreas and helps to maintain insulin sensitivity despite iron overload. Belgrade rats had lower body weight but increased food consumption compared with heterozygous littermates. The unexpected energy balance was associated with increased urinary glucose output. Increased urinary excretion of electrolytes, including iron, was also observed. Histopathological evidence suggests that altered renal function is secondary to changes in kidney morphology, including glomerulosclerosis. Thus, loss of DMT1 appears to protect the pancreas from injury but damages the integrity of kidney structure and function.

1-Mesityl-3-(3-Sulfonatopropyl) Imidazolium Protects Against Oxidative Stress and Delays Proteotoxicity in C. elegans.

Due to the increase in life expectancy worldwide, age-related disorders such as neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) have become more prevalent. Conventional treatments comprise drugs that only attenuate some of the symptoms, but fail to arrest or delay neuronal proteotoxicity that characterizes these diseases. Due to their diverse biological activities, imidazole rings are intensively explored as powerful scaffolds for the development of new bioactive molecules. By using C. elegans, our work aims to explore novel biological roles for these compounds. To this end, we have tested the in vivo anti-proteotoxic effects of imidazolium salts. Since NDs have been largely linked to impaired antioxidant defense mechanisms, we focused on 1-Mesityl-3-(3-sulfonatopropyl) imidazolium (MSI), one of the imidazolium salts that we identified as capable of improving iron-induced oxidative stress resistance in wild-type animals. By combining mutant and gene expression analysis we have determined that this protective effect depends on the activation of the Heat Shock Transcription Factor (HSF-1), whereas it is independent of other canonical cytoprotective molecules such as abnormal Dauer Formation-16 (DAF-16/FOXO) and Skinhead-1 (SKN-1/Nrf2). To delve deeper into the biological roles of MSI, we analyzed the impact of this compound on previously established C. elegans models of protein aggregation. We found that MSI ameliorates ß-amyloid-induced paralysis in worms expressing the pathological protein involved in Alzheimer's Disease. Moreover, this compound also delays age-related locomotion decline in other proteotoxic C. elegans models, suggesting a broad protective effect. Taken together, our results point to MSI as a promising anti-proteotoxic compound and provide proof of concept of the potential of imidazole derivatives in the development of novel therapies to retard age-related proteotoxic diseases.

Immunolocalization of ferroportin in healthy and anemic mice.

Ferroportin (FPN), the only iron exporter identified to date, participates in iron release from enterocytes and macrophages, regulating its absorption and recycling. We used a murine model of experimental hemolytic anemia to study adaptive changes in the localization of FPN in duodenum, liver, and spleen. FPN was assessed by IHC in healthy and anemic mice using rabbit anti-mouse FPN polyclonal antibodies. Goat-labeled polymer-horseradish peroxidase anti-rabbit Envision+System (DAB) was used as secondary antibody. Tissue iron was studied by Prussian blue iron staining. Anemia evolution and erythropoietic recovery was assessed using conventional hematological tests. Healthy mice showed mainly supranuclear expression of FPN in enterocytes and a weak basolateral expression, whereas in anemic mice, the expression was detected mainly at the basolateral membrane (days 4 and 5). Red pulp macrophages of healthy mice showed FPN-hemosiderin colocalization. In the liver of healthy mice, FPN was mainly cytoplasmic, whereas in anemic mice, it was redistributed to the cell membrane. Our findings clearly show that anemia induces adaptive changes in FPN expression, contributing to anemia restoration by increasing available iron. FPN expression in the membrane is the main pathway of iron release. Our data indicate that iron homeostasis in vivo is maintained through the coordinated expression of this iron exporter in both intestinal and phagocytic cells.

Self-organization of gliadin in aqueous media under physiological digestive pHs.

Here we showed that gliadin, a complex protein system related to celiac disease and other human diseases, is spontaneously self-organized in a very dilute solution at pH 3.0 and 7.0 in water under low ionic strength (10mM NaCl). The spontaneous self-organization at pH 3.0 increases the apparent solubility due to the formation of finite sized aggregates, such as those formed in the micellization of amphiphilic molecules. Switching the pH from 3.0 to 7.0 lead to a phase separation, however part of the nano-particles are stable remaining disperse in water after centrifugation. Also, beside the pH change led to changes in protein composition and concentration, we determined that the secondary structure of both system is the same. Moreover, Tyrs are slightly more buried and Trps are slightly more exposed to water at pH 7.0 than those at pH 3.0. Electron microscopy techniques showed that both gliadin systems are composed of nanostructures and in the case of pH 7.0 amorphous microaggregates were found, too. Only nanostructures at pH 3.0 showed a micromolar binding affinity to Nile red probe, suggesting the presence of accessible hydrophobic patches which are not more accessible at pH 7.0. All our results suggest that gliadin is able to self-organized at pH 3.0 forming protein micelles type nanostructures (ζ=+13, 42 ± 1.55 mV), meanwhile at 7.0 the decrease of superficial charge to ζ of +4, 78 ± 0.48 mV led to the formation of stable colloidal nanoparticles, unable to interact with Nile red probe. Our findings may open new perspectives for the understanding of gliadin ability to avoid proteolysis, to reach and cross the intestinal lumen and to trigger different immunological disorders.

Pathophysiology of the Belgrade rat.

The Belgrade rat is an animal model of divalent metal transporter 1 (DMT1) deficiency. This strain originates from an X-irradiation experiment first reported in 1966. Since then, the Belgrade rat's pathophysiology has helped to reveal the importance of iron balance and the role of DMT1. This review discusses our current understanding of iron transport homeostasis and summarizes molecular details of DMT1 function. We describe how studies of the Belgrade rat have revealed key roles for DMT1 in iron distribution to red blood cells as well as duodenal iron absorption. The Belgrade rat's pathology has extended our knowledge of hepatic iron handling, pulmonary and olfactory iron transport as well as brain iron uptake and renal iron handling. For example, relationships between iron and manganese metabolism have been discerned since both are essential metals transported by DMT1. Pathophysiologic features of the Belgrade rat provide us with a unique and interesting animal model to understand iron homeostasis.

Dyes and stains: from molecular structure to histological application.

In the present review, the chemistry of dyes as well as the interaction mechanisms between tissue and dye has been detailed, and also some of the key factors affecting the selectivity of dyes by certain cellular structures have been mentioned. Moreover, due to the relevance that histological stains have acquired in biomedical research, some of the most common stains have been described, pointing out previous and current applications in basic and applied research.

Role of the kidney in iron homeostasis: renal expression of Prohepcidin, Ferroportin, and DMT1 in anemic mice.

It is known that renal tissue plays a role in normal iron homeostasis. The current study examines kidney function in iron metabolism under hemolytic anemia studying renal expression of Prohepcidin, Ferroportin (MTP1), and divalent metal transporter 1 (DMT1). The relationship between these proteins and iron pigments was also investigated. Immunohistochemical procedures to study renal expression of Prohepcidin, MTP1, and DMT1 were performed in healthy and anemic mice. Renal tissue iron was determined by Prussian blue iron staining. To assess anemia evolution and erythropoietic recovery, we used conventional tests. In healthy mice, Prohepcidin expression was marked in proximal tubules and inner medulla and absent in outer medulla. Cortical tissue of healthy mice also showed MTP1 immunostaining, mainly in the S2 segment of proximal tubules. Medullar tissue showed MTP1 expression in the inner zone. In addition, S2 segments showed intense DMT1 immunoreactivity with homogeneous DMT1 distribution throughout renal medulla. The main cortical findings in hemolytic anemia were in S2 segments of proximal tubules where we found that decreased Prohepcidin expression coincided with an increment in Ferroportin and DMT1 expression. This expression pattern was concomitant with increased iron in the same tubular zone. However, in medullar tissue both Prohepcidin and MTP1 decreased and DMT1 was detected mainly in larger diameter tubules. Our findings clearly demonstrate that in hemolytic anemia, renal Prohepcidin acts in coordination with renal Ferroportin and DMT1, indicating the key involvement of kidney in iron homeostasis when iron demand is high. Further research is required to learn more about these regulatory mechanisms.

Eritropoyesis y esplenectomía en un modelo murino / ERITHROPOIESIS AND SPLENECTOMY IN A MURINE MODEL

Introducción: El bazo del ratón adulto participa en la recuperación del eritrón porque su estroma aporta un microentorno adecuado para la proliferación y maduración de progenitores. Objetivo: Evaluar por estudios morfológicos el grado de eritropoyesis hepática y renal en ratones esplenectomizados en respuesta a la hemólisis inducida por fenilhidrazina (FHZ). Materiales y Métodos: Ratones hembra CF1(30±3g) fueron agrupados en:1)GRUPO CONTROL (GC)(n=18): solución fisiológica (SF) intraperitoneal (ip) (300µL;días:0,2) postcirugía simulada; 2)GRUPO ANÉMICO (GA) (n=18): FHZ ip (60mg/Kg/ 300mL;días:0,2) postcirugía simulada;3)GRUPO ESPLENECTOMIZADO NO ANÉMICO(GENA) (n=18): SF ip postesplenectomía (300mL;días:0,2); 4) GRUPO ESPLENECTOMIZADO ANÉMICO (GEA)(n=18): FHZ ip (60mg/Kg/ 300mL;días:0,2) postesplenectomía. Sangre venosa: cada 2 días hasta el día 10 (n=3). Parámetros evaluados: Hb, HCT, reticulocitos y cuerpos de Heinz. La esplenectomía se realizó bajo anestesia. Los tejidos fueron fijados con Bouin y Formol 10% y procesados para Hematoxilina- Eosina. Islotes eritropoyéticos (IE) semicuantificados por un escore preestablecido. Resultados: Los grupos anémicos, con y sin bazo, mostraron hemólisis franca el día 4. La recuperación de la anemia fue el día 6 en el GA y el día 10 en el GEA. Reticulocitosis máxima: día 8 en el GEA y día 6 en el GA. Cuerpos de Heinz: elevados hasta el día 6 en GA y hasta el día 8 en GEA. Se observaron abundantes IE en hígado y en menor grado en riñón. Conclusiones: La recuperación eritropoyética en ratones esplenectomizados fue asumida principalmente por el hígado. La restauración tardía evidenció que el bazo es el órgano que compensa con mayor eficiencia la crisis hemolítica en esta cepa de ratones.

Introduction: The spleen of the adult mouse takes part in the recovery of erythron because its stroma provides a micro-environment that is adequate for progenitor proliferation and maturing. Objective: To assess, by means of morphological studies, the degree of hepatic and renal erythropoiesis in splenectomized mice in response to phenylhydrazine (PHZ)-induced hemolysis. Materials and Methods: Female mice CF1(30±3g) were grouped into: 1) CONTROL GROUP (CG) (n=18): intraperitoneal (ip) physiological solution (PS) (300 µL; days: 0,2) post simulated surgery; 2) ANEMIC GROUP (AG) (n=18): ip PHZ (60 mg / Kg / 300mL; days: 0, 2) post simulated surgery; 3) SPLENECTOMIZED NON- ANEMIC GROUP (SNAG) (n=18): ip PS postsplenectomy (300mL; days: 0, 2); 4) SPLENECTOMIZED ANEMIC GROUP (SAG) (n=18): ip PHZ (60 mg / Kg / 300 mL; days: 0, 2) post-splenectomy. Venous blood: every 2 days until day 10 (n=3). Parameters assessed: Hb, HCT, reticulocytes, and Heinz bodies. The splenectomy was performed under anesthesia. Tissues were fixed using Bouin and 10% Formalin and processed for Hematoxilin- Eosin. Erythropoietic Islands (EI) were semi-quantified by a pre-established score. Results: Anemic groups, with and without the spleen, showed marked hemolysis on day 4. Anemia recovery took place on day 6 in the AG and on day 10 in the SAG. Maximum Reticulocytosis: day 8 in the SAG and day 6 in the AG. Heinz Bodies were high until day 6 in AG and until day 8 in SAG. Abundant EI were observed in the liver and in a smaller degree in the kidney. Conclusions: Erythropoietic recovery in splenectomized mice was mainly assumed by the liver. Late restoration showed that the spleen is the organ that most efficiently compensates the hemolytic crisis in this mice strain.