Cardiac activity impacts cortical motor excitability.

Human cognition and action can be influenced by internal bodily processes such as heartbeats. For instance, somatosensory perception is impaired both during the systolic phase of the cardiac cycle and when heartbeats evoke stronger cortical responses. Here, we test whether these cardiac effects originate from overall changes in cortical excitability. Cortical and corticospinal excitability were assessed using electroencephalographic and electromyographic responses to transcranial magnetic stimulation while concurrently monitoring cardiac activity with electrocardiography. Cortical and corticospinal excitability were found to be highest during systole and following stronger neural responses to heartbeats. Furthermore, in a motor task, hand-muscle activity and the associated desynchronization of sensorimotor oscillations were stronger during systole. These results suggest that systolic cardiac signals have a facilitatory effect on motor excitability-in contrast to sensory attenuation that was previously reported for somatosensory perception. Thus, it is possible that distinct time windows exist across the cardiac cycle, optimizing either perception or action.

Prebiotic diet changes neural correlates of food decision-making in overweight adults: a randomised controlled within-subject cross-over trial.

OBJECTIVE: Animal studies suggest that prebiotic, plant-derived nutrients could improve homoeostatic and hedonic brain functions through improvements in microbiome-gut-brain communication. However, little is known if these results are applicable to humans. Therefore, we tested the effects of high-dosed prebiotic fibre on reward-related food decision-making in a randomised controlled within-subject cross-over study and assayed potential microbial and metabolic markers. DESIGN: 59 overweight young adults (19 females, 18-42 years, body mass index 25-30 kg/m2) underwent functional task MRI before and after 14 days of supplementary intake of 30 g/day of inulin (prebiotics) and equicaloric placebo, respectively. Short chain fatty acids (SCFA), gastrointestinal hormones, glucose/lipid and inflammatory markers were assayed in fasting blood. Gut microbiota and SCFA were measured in stool. RESULTS: Compared with placebo, participants showed decreased brain activation towards high-caloric wanted food stimuli in the ventral tegmental area and right orbitofrontal cortex after prebiotics (preregistered, family wise error-corrected p <0.05). While fasting blood levels remained largely unchanged, 16S-rRNA sequencing showed significant shifts in the microbiome towards increased occurrence of, among others, SCFA-producing Bifidobacteriaceae, and changes in >60 predicted functional signalling pathways after prebiotic intake. Changes in brain activation correlated with changes in Actinobacteria microbial abundance and associated activity previously linked with SCFA production, such as ABC transporter metabolism. CONCLUSIONS: In this proof-of-concept study, a prebiotic intervention attenuated reward-related brain activation during food decision-making, paralleled by shifts in gut microbiota. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: NCT03829189.

Prior Movement of One Arm Facilitates Motor Adaptation in the Other.

Many movements in daily life are embedded in motion sequences that involve more than one limb, demanding the motor system to monitor and control different body parts in quick succession. During such movements, systematic changes in the environment or the body might require motor adaptation of specific segments. However, previous motor adaptation research has focused primarily on motion sequences produced by a single limb, or on simultaneous movements of several limbs. For example, adaptation to opposing force fields is possible in unimanual reaching tasks when the direction of a prior or subsequent movement is predictive of force field direction. It is unclear, however, whether multilimb sequences can support motor adaptation processes in a similar way. In the present study (38 females, 38 males), we investigated whether reaches can be adapted to different force fields in a bimanual motor sequence when the information about the perturbation is associated with the prior movement direction of the other arm. In addition, we examined whether prior perceptual (visual or proprioceptive) feedback of the opposite arm contributes to force field-specific motor adaptation. Our key finding is that only active participation in the bimanual sequential task supports pronounced adaptation. This result suggests that active segments in bimanual motion sequences are linked across limbs. If there is a consistent association between movement kinematics of the linked and goal movement, the learning process of the goal movement can be facilitated. More generally, if motion sequences are repeated often, prior segments can evoke specific adjustments of subsequent movements.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Movements in a limb's motion sequence can be adjusted based on linked movements. A prerequisite is that kinematics of the linked movements correctly predict which adjustments are needed. We show that use of kinematic information to improve performance is even possible when a prior linked movement is performed with a different limb. For example, a skilled juggler might have learned how to correctly adjust his catching movement of the left hand when the right hand performed a throwing action in a specific way. Linkage is possibly a key mechanism of the human motor system for learning complex bimanual skills. Our study emphasizes that learning of specific movements should not be studied in isolation but within their motor sequence context.

Decreased long-range temporal correlations in the resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging blood-oxygen-level-dependent signal reflect motor sequence learning up to 2 weeks following training.

Decreased long-range temporal correlations (LRTC) in brain signals can be used to measure cognitive effort during task execution. Here, we examined how learning a motor sequence affects long-range temporal memory within resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging signal. Using the Hurst exponent (HE), we estimated voxel-wise LRTC and assessed changes over 5 consecutive days of training, followed by a retention scan 12 days later. The experimental group learned a complex visuomotor sequence while a complementary control group performed tightly matched movements. An interaction analysis revealed that HE decreases were specific to the complex sequence and occurred in well-known motor sequence learning associated regions including left supplementary motor area, left premotor cortex, left M1, left pars opercularis, bilateral thalamus, and right striatum. Five regions exhibited moderate to strong negative correlations with overall behavioral performance improvements. Following learning, HE values returned to pretraining levels in some regions, whereas in others, they remained decreased even 2 weeks after training. Our study presents new evidence of HE's possible relevance for functional plasticity during the resting-state and suggests that a cortical subset of sequence-specific regions may continue to represent a functional signature of learning reflected in decreased long-range temporal dependence after a period of inactivity.

Vascular risk factors, white matter microstructure, and depressive symptoms: a longitudinal analysis in the UK Biobank.

BACKGROUND: Cumulative burden from vascular risk factors (VRFs) has been associated with an increased risk of depressive symptoms in mid- and later life. It has been hypothesised that this association arises because VRFs disconnect fronto-subcortical white matter tracts involved in mood regulation, which puts older adults at higher risk of developing depressive symptoms. However, evidence for the hypothesis that disconnection of white matter tracts underlies the association between VRF burden and depressive symptoms from longitudinal studies is scarce. METHODS: This preregistered study analysed longitudinal data from 6,964 middle-aged and older adults from the UK Biobank who participated in consecutive assessments of VRFs, brain imaging, and depressive symptoms. Using mediation modelling, we directly tested to what extend white matter microstructure mediates the longitudinal association between VRF burden and depressive symptoms. RESULTS: VRF burden showed a small association with depressive symptoms at follow-up. However, there was no evidence that fractional anisotropy (FA) of white matter tracts mediated this association. Additional analyses also yielded no mediating effects using alternative operationalisations of VRF burden, mean diffusivity (MD) of single tracts, or overall average of tract-based white matter microstructure (global FA, global MD, white matter hyperintensity volume). CONCLUSIONS: Our results lend no support to the hypothesis that disconnection of white matter tracts underlies the association between VRF burden and depressive symptoms, while highlighting the relevance of using longitudinal data to directly test pathways linking vascular and mental health.

Cortico-cerebellar audio-motor regions coordinate self and other in musical joint action.

Joint music performance requires flexible sensorimotor coordination between self and other. Cognitive and sensory parameters of joint action-such as shared knowledge or temporal (a)synchrony-influence this coordination by shifting the balance between self-other segregation and integration. To investigate the neural bases of these parameters and their interaction during joint action, we asked pianists to play on an MR-compatible piano, in duet with a partner outside of the scanner room. Motor knowledge of the partner's musical part and the temporal compatibility of the partner's action feedback were manipulated. First, we found stronger activity and functional connectivity within cortico-cerebellar audio-motor networks when pianists had practiced their partner's part before. This indicates that they simulated and anticipated the auditory feedback of the partner by virtue of an internal model. Second, we observed stronger cerebellar activity and reduced behavioral adaptation when pianists encountered subtle asynchronies between these model-based anticipations and the perceived sensory outcome of (familiar) partner actions, indicating a shift towards self-other segregation. These combined findings demonstrate that cortico-cerebellar audio-motor networks link motor knowledge and other-produced sounds depending on cognitive and sensory factors of the joint performance, and play a crucial role in balancing self-other integration and segregation.

Associations between person-environment fit and mental health - results from the population-based LIFE-Adult-Study.

Within occupational settings, mental health of employees can be affected by complex interactions between individuals and their work environment. The aim of this cross-sectional analysis was to investigate the association between person-environment fit and mental health in employees. Data of n = 568 participants from the LIFE adult cohort study was analysed, including socio-demographic characteristics, three dimensions of person-environment fit (P-E fit), symptoms of depression and anxiety. Assessment took place between 2017 and 2021. Statistical analysis included descriptive analyses as well as generalized linear regression models adjusted for age, gender, socioeconomic status, marital status, and job status. Correlational analysis revealed significant associations between age, marital status, SES, employment status, symptoms of depression and anxiety and P-E fit. According to regression models, greater perceived fit between person and organization was associated with lower depression scores and lower symptoms of anxiety. Higher perceived fit between demands and abilities was significantly related to lower severity of depression and anxiety. Similarly, participants reporting a higher fit between needs and supplies, exhibited less symptom severity regarding depression and anxiety. These results underline the importance of person-environment fit regarding mental health. Finding ways to obtain an optimal balance should not only be recognized as an important factor for health and well-being, but might also be beneficial for organizations and employers in the long-term.

Respiration, Heartbeat, and Conscious Tactile Perception.

Previous studies have shown that timing of sensory stimulation during the cardiac cycle interacts with perception. Given the natural coupling of respiration and cardiac activity, we investigated here their joint effects on tactile perception. Forty-one healthy female and male human participants reported conscious perception of finger near-threshold electrical pulses (33% null trials) and decision confidence while electrocardiography, respiratory activity, and finger photoplethysmography were recorded. Participants adapted their respiratory cycle to expected stimulus onsets to preferentially occur during late inspiration/early expiration. This closely matched heart rate variation (sinus arrhythmia) across the respiratory cycle such that most frequent stimulation onsets occurred during the period of highest heart rate probably indicating highest alertness and cortical excitability. Tactile detection rate was highest during the first quadrant after expiration onset. Interindividually, stronger respiratory phase-locking to the task was associated with higher detection rates. Regarding the cardiac cycle, we confirmed previous findings that tactile detection rate was higher during diastole than systole and newly specified its minimum at 250-300 ms after the R-peak corresponding to the pulse wave arrival in the finger. Expectation of stimulation induced a transient heart deceleration which was more pronounced for unconfident decision ratings. Interindividually, stronger poststimulus modulations of heart rate were linked to higher detection rates. In summary, we demonstrate how tuning to the respiratory cycle and integration of respiratory-cardiac signals are used to optimize performance of a tactile detection task.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Mechanistic studies on perception and cognition tend to focus on the brain neglecting contributions of the body. Here, we investigated how respiration and heartbeat influence tactile perception: respiration phase-locking to expected stimulus onsets corresponds to highest heart rate (and presumably alertness/cortical excitability) and correlates with detection performance. Tactile detection varies across the heart cycle with a minimum when the pulse reaches the finger and a maximum in diastole. Taken together with our previous finding of unchanged early event-related potentials across the cardiac cycle, we conclude that these effects are not a peripheral physiological artifact but a result of cognitive processes that model our body's internal state, make predictions to guide behavior, and might also tune respiration to serve the task.

Visuo-motor transformations in the intraparietal sulcus mediate the acquisition of endovascular medical skill.

Performing endovascular medical interventions safely and efficiently requires a diverse set of skills that need to be practised in dedicated training sessions. Here, we used multimodal magnetic resonance (MR) imaging to determine the structural and functional plasticity and core skills associated with skill acquisition. A training group learned to perform a simulator-based endovascular procedure, while a control group performed a simplified version of the task; multimodal MR images were acquired before and after training. Using a well-controlled interaction design, we found strong multimodal evidence for the role of the intraparietal sulcus (IPS) in endovascular skill acquisition that is in line with previous work implicating the structure in visuospatial transformations including simple visuo-motor and mental rotation tasks. Our results provide a unique window into the multimodal nature of rapid structural and functional plasticity of the human brain while learning a multifaceted and complex clinical skill. Further, our results provide a detailed description of the plasticity process associated with endovascular skill acquisition and highlight specific facets of skills that could enhance current medical pedagogy and be useful to explicitly target during clinical resident training.

Alterations in rhythmic and non-rhythmic resting-state EEG activity and their link to cognition in older age.

While many structural and biochemical changes in the brain have previously been associated with older age, findings concerning functional properties of neuronal networks, as reflected in their electrophysiological signatures, remain rather controversial. These discrepancies might arise due to several reasons, including diverse factors determining general spectral slowing in the alpha frequency range as well as amplitude mixing between the rhythmic and non-rhythmic parameters. We used a large dataset (N = 1703, mean age 70) to comprehensively investigate age-related alterations in multiple EEG biomarkers taking into account rhythmic and non-rhythmic activity and their individual contributions to cognitive performance. While we found strong evidence for an individual alpha peak frequency (IAF) decline in older age, we did not observe a significant relationship between theta power and age while controlling for IAF. Not only did IAF decline with age, but it was also positively associated with interference resolution in a working memory task primarily in the right and left temporal lobes suggesting its functional role in information sampling. Critically, we did not detect a significant relationship between alpha power and age when controlling for the 1/f spectral slope, while the latter one showed age-related alterations. These findings thus suggest that the entanglement of IAF slowing and power in the theta frequency range, as well as 1/f slope and alpha power measures, might explain inconsistencies reported previously in the literature. Finally, despite the absence of age-related alterations, alpha power was negatively associated with the speed of processing in the right frontal lobe while 1/f slope showed no consistent relationship to cognitive performance. Our results thus demonstrate that multiple electrophysiological features, as well as their interplay, should be considered for the comprehensive assessment of association between age, neuronal activity, and cognitive performance.

Rapid volumetric brain changes after acute psychosocial stress.

Stress is an important trigger for brain plasticity: Acute stress can rapidly affect brain activity and functional connectivity, and chronic or pathological stress has been associated with structural brain changes. Measures of structural magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) can be modified by short-term motor learning or visual stimulation, suggesting that they also capture rapid brain changes. Here, we investigated volumetric brain changes (together with changes in T1 relaxation rate and cerebral blood flow) after acute stress in humans as well as their relation to psychophysiological stress measures. Sixty-seven healthy men (25.8±2.7 years) completed a standardized psychosocial laboratory stressor (Trier Social Stress Test) or a control version while blood, saliva, heart rate, and psychometrics were sampled. Structural MRI (T1 mapping / MP2RAGE sequence) at 3T was acquired 45 min before and 90 min after intervention onset. Grey matter volume (GMV) changes were analysed using voxel-based morphometry. Associations with endocrine, autonomic, and subjective stress measures were tested with linear models. We found significant group-by-time interactions in several brain clusters including anterior/mid-cingulate cortices and bilateral insula: GMV was increased in the stress group relative to the control group, in which several clusters showed a GMV decrease. We found a significant group-by-time interaction for cerebral blood flow, and a main effect of time for T1 values (longitudinal relaxation time). In addition, GMV changes were significantly associated with state anxiety and heart rate variability changes. Such rapid GMV changes assessed with VBM may be induced by local tissue adaptations to changes in energy demand following neural activity. Our findings suggest that endogenous brain changes are counteracted by acute psychosocial stress, which emphasizes the importance of considering homeodynamic processes and generally highlights the influence of stress on the brain.

Reproducibility of cerebral perfusion measurements using BOLD delay.

BOLD delay is an emerging, noninvasive method for assessing cerebral perfusion that does not require the use of intravenous contrast agents and is thus particularly suited for longitudinal monitoring. In this study, we assess the reproducibility of BOLD delay using data from 136 subjects with normal cerebral perfusion scanned on two separate occasions with scanners, sequence parameters, and intervals between scans varying between subjects. The effects of various factors on the reproducibility of BOLD delay, defined here as the differences in BOLD delay values between the scanning sessions, were investigated using a linear mixed model. Reproducibility was additionally assessed using the intraclass correlation coefficient of BOLD delay between sessions. Reproducibility was highest in the posterior cerebral artery territory. The mean BOLD delay test-retest difference after accounting for the aforementioned factors was 1.2 s (95% CI = 1.0 to 1.4 s). Overall, BOLD delay shows good reproducibility, but care should be taken when interpreting longitudinal BOLD delay changes that are either very small or are located in certain brain regions.

Modeling venous bias in resting state functional MRI metrics.

Resting-state (rs) functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is used to detect low-frequency fluctuations in the blood oxygen-level dependent (BOLD) signal across brain regions. Correlations between temporal BOLD signal fluctuations are commonly used to infer functional connectivity. However, because BOLD is based on the dilution of deoxyhemoglobin, it is sensitive to veins of all sizes, and its amplitude is biased by draining veins. These biases affect local BOLD signal location and amplitude, and may also influence BOLD-derived connectivity measures, but the magnitude of this venous bias and its relation to vein size and proximity is unknown. Here, veins were identified using high-resolution quantitative susceptibility maps and utilized in a biophysical model to investigate systematic venous biases on common local rsfMRI-derived measures. Specifically, we studied the impact of vein diameter and distance to veins on the amplitude of low-frequency fluctuations (ALFF), fractional ALFF (fALFF), Hurst exponent (HE), regional homogeneity (ReHo), and eigenvector centrality values in the grey matter. Values were higher across all distances in smaller veins, and decreased with increasing vein diameter. Additionally, rsfMRI values associated with larger veins decrease with increasing distance from the veins. ALFF and ReHo were the most biased by veins, while HE and fALFF exhibited the smallest bias. Across all metrics, the amplitude of the bias was limited in voxel-wise data, confirming that venous structure is not the dominant source of contrast in these rsfMRI metrics. Finally, the models presented can be used to correct this venous bias in rsfMRI metrics.

Neurocognitive predictors of food memory in healthy adults - A preregistered analysis.

Memory processes have long been known to determine food choices (Rozin & Zellner, 1985) but recognition memory of food and its cognitive, homeostatic and neuroanatomical predictors are still largely understudied. 60 healthy, overweight, non-restrictive eating adults (20 females) took part in a food wanting and subsequent food recognition and lure discrimination task at four time points after a standardized breakfast shake. With advanced tractography of 3 T diffusion-weighted imaging data, we investigated the influence of the uncinate fasciculus' (UF) brain microstructure on the interplay of food wanting and memory processes. The analysis was preregistered in detail and conducted with Bayesian multilevel regression modeling. Target recognition (d') and lure discrimination (LDI) performance of food tended to be higher than of art images while single image food memory accuracy evidently dominated art memory. On this single item level, wanting enhanced recognition accuracy and caloric content enhanced food memory accuracy. The enhancement by reward anticipation was most pronounced during memory encoding. Subjective hunger level did not predict performance on the memory task. The microstructure of the UF did neither evidently affect memory performance outcomes nor moderate the wanting enhancement of the recognition accuracy. Interestingly, female participants outperformed males on the memory task, and individuals with stronger neuroticism showed poorer memory performance. We shed light on to date understudied processes in food decision-making: reward anticipation influenced recognition accuracy and food memory was enhanced by higher caloric content, both effects might shape food decisions. Our findings indicate that brain microstructure does not affect food decision processes in adult populations with overweight. We suggest extending investigation of this interplay to brain activity as well as to populations with eating behaviour disorders.

Today's Older Adults Are Cognitively Fitter Than Older Adults Were 20 Years Ago, but When and How They Decline Is No Different Than in the Past.

History-graded increases in older adults' levels of cognitive performance are well documented, but little is known about historical shifts in within-person change: cognitive decline and onset of decline. We combined harmonized perceptual-motor speed data from independent samples recruited in 1990 and 2010 to obtain 2,008 age-matched longitudinal observations (M = 78 years, 50% women) from 228 participants in the Berlin Aging Study (BASE) and 583 participants in the Berlin Aging Study II (BASE-II). We used nonlinear growth models that orthogonalized within- and between-person age effects and controlled for retest effects. At age 78, the later-born BASE-II cohort substantially outperformed the earlier-born BASE cohort (d = 1.20; 25 years of age difference). Age trajectories, however, were parallel, and there was no evidence of cohort differences in the amount or rate of decline and the onset of decline. Cognitive functioning has shifted to higher levels, but cognitive decline in old age appears to proceed similarly as it did two decades ago.

Non-zero mean alpha oscillations revealed with computational model and empirical data.

Ongoing oscillations and evoked responses are two main types of neuronal activity obtained with diverse electrophysiological recordings (EEG/MEG/iEEG/LFP). Although typically studied separately, they might in fact be closely related. One possibility to unite them is to demonstrate that neuronal oscillations have non-zero mean which predicts that stimulus- or task-triggered amplitude modulation of oscillations can contribute to the generation of evoked responses. We validated this mechanism using computational modelling and analysis of a large EEG data set. With a biophysical model, we indeed demonstrated that intracellular currents in the neuron are asymmetric and, consequently, the mean of alpha oscillations is non-zero. To understand the effect that neuronal currents exert on oscillatory mean, we varied several biophysical and morphological properties of neurons in the network, such as voltage-gated channel densities, length of dendrites, and intensity of incoming stimuli. For a very large range of model parameters, we observed evidence for non-zero mean of oscillations. Complimentary, we analysed empirical rest EEG recordings of 90 participants (50 young, 40 elderly) and, with spatio-spectral decomposition, detected at least one spatially-filtred oscillatory component of non-zero mean alpha oscillations in 93% of participants. In order to explain a complex relationship between the dynamics of amplitude-envelope and corresponding baseline shifts, we performed additional simulations with simple oscillators coupled with different time delays. We demonstrated that the extent of spatial synchronisation may obscure macroscopic estimation of alpha rhythm modulation while leaving baseline shifts unchanged. Overall, our results predict that amplitude modulation of neural oscillations should at least partially explain the generation of evoked responses. Therefore, inference about changes in evoked responses with respect to cognitive conditions, age or neuropathologies should be constructed while taking into account oscillatory neuronal dynamics.

Influence of noninvasive brain stimulation on connectivity and local activation: a combined tDCS and fMRI study.

The effect of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) on neurobiological mechanisms underlying executive function in the human brain remains elusive. This study aims at examining the effect of anodal and cathodal tDCS over the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) in comparison with sham stimulation on resting-state connectivity as well as functional activation and working memory performance. We hypothesized perturbed fronto-parietal resting-state connectivity during stimulation and altered working memory performance combined with modified functional working memory-related activation. We applied tDCS with 1 mA for 21 min over the DLPFC inside an fMRI scanner. During stimulation, resting-state fMRI was acquired and task-dependent fMRI during working memory task performance was acquired directly after stimulation. N = 36 healthy subjects were studied in a within-subject design with three different experimental conditions (anodal, cathodal and sham) in a double-blind design. Seed-based functional connectivity analyses and dynamic causal modeling were conducted for the resting-state fMRI data. We found a significant stimulation by region interaction in the seed-based ROI-to-ROI resting-state connectivity, but no effect on effective connectivity. We also did not find an effect of stimulation on task-dependent signal alterations in working memory activation in our regions of interest and no effect on working memory performance parameters. We found effects on measures of seed-based resting-state connectivity, while measures of effective connectivity and task-based connectivity did not show any stimulation effect. We could not replicate previous findings of tDCS stimulation effects on behavioral outcomes. We critically discuss possible methodological limitations and implications for future studies.

Endogenous sources of interbrain synchrony in duetting pianists.

When people interact with each other, their brains synchronize. However, it remains unclear whether interbrain synchrony (IBS) is functionally relevant for social interaction or stems from exposure of individual brains to identical sensorimotor information. To disentangle these views, the current dual-EEG study investigated amplitude-based IBS in pianists jointly performing duets containing a silent pause followed by a tempo change. First, we manipulated the similarity of the anticipated tempo change and measured IBS during the pause, hence, capturing the alignment of purely endogenous, temporal plans without sound or movement. Notably, right posterior gamma IBS was higher when partners planned similar tempi, it predicted whether partners' tempi matched after the pause, and it was modulated only in real, not in surrogate pairs. Second, we manipulated the familiarity with the partner's actions and measured IBS during joint performance with sound. Although sensorimotor information was similar across conditions, gamma IBS was higher when partners were unfamiliar with each other's part and had to attend more closely to the sound of the performance. These combined findings demonstrate that IBS is not merely an epiphenomenon of shared sensorimotor information but can also hinge on endogenous, cognitive processes crucial for behavioral synchrony and successful social interaction.

Lateral prefrontal cortex is a hub for music production from structural rules to movements.

Complex sequential behaviors, such as speaking or playing music, entail flexible rule-based chaining of single acts. However, it remains unclear how the brain translates abstract structural rules into movements. We combined music production with multimodal neuroimaging to dissociate high-level structural and low-level motor planning. Pianists played novel musical chord sequences on a muted MR-compatible piano by imitating a model hand on screen. Chord sequences were manipulated in terms of musical harmony and context length to assess structural planning, and in terms of fingers used for playing to assess motor planning. A model of probabilistic sequence processing confirmed temporally extended dependencies between chords, as opposed to local dependencies between movements. Violations of structural plans activated the left inferior frontal and middle temporal gyrus, and the fractional anisotropy of the ventral pathway connecting these two regions positively predicted behavioral measures of structural planning. A bilateral frontoparietal network was instead activated by violations of motor plans. Both structural and motor networks converged in lateral prefrontal cortex, with anterior regions contributing to musical structure building, and posterior areas to movement planning. These results establish a promising approach to study sequence production at different levels of action representation.

Differences in white matter hyperintensities in socioeconomically deprived groups: results of the population-based LIFE Adult Study.

OBJECTIVE: Previous studies have shown that socioeconomically deprived groups exhibit higher lesion load of the white matter (WM) in aging. The aim of this study was to (i) investigate to what extent education and income may contribute to differences in white matter hyperintensities (WMHs) and (ii) identify risk profiles related to a higher prevalence of age-associated WMH. DESIGN AND SETTING: Population-based adult study of the Leipzig Research Centre for Civilization Diseases (LIFE) in Leipzig, Germany. PARTICIPANTS: Dementia-free sample aged 40-80 years (n = 1,185) derived from the population registry. MEASUREMENTS: Information was obtained in standardized interviews. WMH (including the derived Fazekas scores) were assessed using automated segmentation of high-resolution T1-weighted anatomical and fluid-attenuated inversion recovery (FLAIR) MRI acquired at 3T. RESULTS: Despite a significant association between income and WMH in univariate analyses, results from adjusted models (age, gender, arterial hypertension, heart disease, and APOE e4 allele) indicated no association between income and WMH. Education was associated with Fazekas scores, but not with WMH and not after Bonferroni correction. Prevalence of some health-related risk factors was significantly higher among low-income/education groups. After combining risk factors in a factor analysis, results from adjusted models indicated significant associations between higher distress and more WMH as well as between obesity and more deep WMH. CONCLUSIONS: Previously observed differences in WMH between socioeconomically deprived groups might stem from differences in health-related risk factors. These risk factors should be targeted in prevention programs tailored to socioeconomically deprived individuals.