The neuromodulatory effect of tDCS in patients affected by functional motor symptoms: an exploratory study.

BACKGROUND: Recent studies have shown how emotional and cognitive factors might combine together to determine the onset and maintenance of functional motor symptoms (FMS). Nevertheless, no studies have assessed whether brain circuits involved in regulation and processing of emotions and attention might be influenced by neuromodulation. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of a single anodic tDCS session over the right posterior parietal cortex in subjects with FMS and in healthy individuals. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Nine patients and seven healthy subjects underwent two sessions of tDCS (real and sham), in a randomized order. At the end of each session, all participants underwent the heart beat detection task (interoceptive sensitivity) and the Posner paradigm (spatial attention). RESULTS: After sham stimulation, patients with FMS showed significantly lower interoceptive sensitivity and greater cueing effect for reaction times at the Posner paradigm than healthy controls. There was a significant improvement between the levels of interoceptive sensitivity after real and sham stimulation in the whole group of participants and in the group of patients with FMS. CONCLUSIONS: Our study provides first indications for a neuromodulatory effect of a single anodic tDCS session over the right posterior parietal cortex on interoceptive sensitivity in subjects with FMS.

Failure of Tafamidis to Halt Progression of Ala36Pro TTR Oculomeningovascular Amyloidosis.

Oculomeningovascular amyloidosis is a variant of transthyretin (TTR) amyloidotic polyneuropathy, which is associated with blindness and brain ischemia, microhemorrages, and siderosis due to prominent production of the abnormal TTR in the eye and in the choroid plexuses. Tafamidis is a TTR stabilizer that is orally administered and, by interfering with amyloid fibril formation and deposition, is capable of slowing progression of TTR polyneuropathy and of early-stage cardiomyopathy. However, the ocular manifestations of amyloid deposition progressed despite tafamidis therapy in Val30Met TTR amyloidosis, and the effects of tafamidis on meningovascular amyloidosis are unknown. We observed failure of tafamidis to halt progression of oculomeningovascular amyloid deposition in a patient with familial Ala36Pro TTR amyloidosis. She received molecular diagnosis at age 24 and presented at age 26 with paresthesias of the lower limbs and bowel dysfunction. Echography showed minimal amyloid opacities in the corpus vitreum. Treatment with tafamidis meglumine was started. Sixteen months later, she complained of severe headache followed by left hemiparesthesias and numbness lasting 20 minutes. Magnetic resonance imaging showed multiple focal and diffuse hemosiderin deposits compatible with microbleeds and early siderosis. Echography showed a marked increase of "vitreal opacities." Our observation confirms that tafamidis fails in halting increase of vitreal amyloid deposits and indicates that it is presumably ineffective in preventing clinical onset due to progression of meningovascular amyloidosis. These failures may be due to the incapability of tafamidis to cross the blood-retina and blood-brain barriers. Therapeutic options targeting oculomeningovascular TTR amyloidoses in humans are required.

Palm oil and human health. Meeting report of NFI: Nutrition Foundation of Italy symposium.

The use of palm oil by the food industry is increasingly criticized, especially in Italy, for its purported negative effects on human health and environment. This paper summarizes the conclusions of a Symposium on this topic, gathered by the Nutrition Foundation of Italy, among experts representing a number of Italian Medical and Nutritional Scientific Societies. Toxicological and environmental issues were not considered. Participants agreed that: no evidence does exist on the specific health effects of palm oil consumption as compared to other saturated fatty acids-rich fats; the stereospecific distribution of saturated fatty acids in the triacylglycerol molecule of palm oil limits their absorption rate and metabolic effects; in agreement with International guidelines, saturated fatty acids intake should be kept <10% of total energy, within a balanced diet; within these limits, no effect of palm oil consumption on human health (and specifically on CVD or cancer risk) can be foreseen.

Is it always Alzheimer's? Let's talk to our patients about "cardiocerebrovascular" prevention.

Unlike Alzheimer's, vascular dementia can, in part, be prevented. The preventive approach foresees treatment for high blood pressure, atrial fibrillation, diabetes, high cholesterol, low HDL cholesterol, sedentary lifestyle, smoking, alcohol abuse, obesity, and sleep apnea. Moreover, also a well-balanced diet and physical activity are cornerstones of prevention, with beneficial effects on the brain and cognition.

Co-hydrothermal carbonization with process water recirculation as a valuable strategy to enhance hydrochar recovery with high energy efficiency.

This study aims at valorizing the residual aqueous phase from hydrothermal carbonization (HTC) of Sicilian agro-wastes in order to enhance the hydrochar recovery, positively affecting the process energy balance. Process waters (PW) obtained from HTC and co-HTC using orange peel waste and fennel plant residues were used as recycled solvent in experiments carried out at the temperatures of 180 and 230 °C. The results showed that an additional hydrochar formation was promoted during recirculation of solvent, leading to average increments of solid mass yield of 10.5 wt% for tests conducted at 180 °C and 3.9 wt% for 230 °C. After five consecutive recirculation phases in co-HTC runs, the hydrochar yield increased up to 18.2 wt%. The low H/C and O/C atomic ratios values, found after recirculation, indicate that organic acids, accumulated in the PW, may catalyze the process and promote the biomass deoxygenation by boosting dehydration and decarboxylation. The recovered PWs from conversion steps with deionized water were also carbonized in absence of the solid feedstock in order to quantify their contribution in hydrochar formation during recirculation and thus the synergistic interactions. After recirculation, energy recovery averagely augmented by more than threefold, showing that the proposed strategy could significantly improve the sustainability of HTC.

Peripersonal Space Plasticity in Relation to Psychopathology and Anomalous Subjective Experiences in Individuals With Early-Onset and Adult-Onset Schizophrenia.

INTRODUCTION: Individuals with schizophrenia present anomalies in the extension and plasticity of the peripersonal space (PPS), the section of space surrounding the body, shaped through motor experiences. A weak multisensory integration in PPS would contribute to an impairment of self-embodiment processing, a core feature of the disorder linked to specific subjective experiences. In this exploratory study, we aimed at: (1) testing an association between PPS features, psychopathology, and subjective experiences in schizophrenia; (2) describing the PPS profile in individuals with early-onset schizophrenia. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Twenty-seven individuals with schizophrenia underwent a task measuring the PPS size and boundaries demarcation before and after a motor training with a tool. The Positive And Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS), the Examination of Anomalous Self Experience scale (EASE) and the Autism Rating Scale (ARS) were used to assess psychopathology. Subsequently, participants were divided into two subgroups, early and adult-onset schizophrenia. The two groups were compared in regard to their PPS and psychopathological profiles. RESULTS: PPS patterns were associated with psychopathology, particularly positively with PANSS negative scale score, and negatively with subjective experiences of existential reorientation (EASE Domain 5 scores) and of social encounters (ARS scores). Only PPS parameters and ARS scores differentiated between early and adult-onset participants. CONCLUSIONS: Our results, although preliminary and exploratory, can suggest a link between PPS patterns, negative symptoms, and disturbances of the subjective experience, particularly in the intersubjective domain, in schizophrenia. Moreover, they seem to suggest that specific PPS profiles and schizophrenic autism traits could be markers of early-onset schizophrenia.

Exploring Eating Habits, Healthy Food Awareness, and Inclination toward Functional Foods of Italian Elderly People through Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviews (CATIs).

The continuous increase in life expectancy leads to progressive population ageing, especially in most developed countries. A healthy diet and better consumption of tailored functional foods may represent one of the strategies to postpone or slow down age-related decrements, thus increasing healthy ageing and reducing healthcare costs. This research aimed to explore elderly people's (>65 years old) eating habits and assess their awareness of food-health correlation. In total, 511 Italian seniors answered a CATI (computer-assisted telephone interviewing) questionnaire through a deep, telephone interview to collect information about dietary habits, healthy food awareness, and inclination for functional foods. The elderly were divided into four groups according to gender and age: Early Elderly Female (n = 130), Early Elderly Men (n = 109), Late Elderly Female (n = 157), and Late Elderly Men (n = 115). The groups provided a positive self-assessment of health status and individual diet healthiness, which were both considered over "good enough" (5 on 10-point scale) and showed food consumption habits in line with the Mediterranean Diet (MD) principles. The daily diet was based on fruits, vegetables, bread, and pasta, with extra virgin olive oil as the main fat source, all over "often" consumed (4 on 5-point scale). Old people also showed awareness of different food's healthy properties. Specifically, females were more aware of food's impact on health, considered close to "extremely healthy" (9 on 10-point scale), and strictly followed a MD. Participants also expressed optimistic expectations about functional food efficiency, evaluated as close to "extremely desirable" (8 or 9 on 10-point scale), against age-related problems, highlighting the most important as diabetes, overweight, intestine problems, and low mood. The interviewed elderly were also involved in virtual functional food co-creation, indicating through a basic matrix which, among the most familiar foods, could be the ideal functional food, focusing on fruitsand vegetables. A pleasant odor/flavor, a liquid texture, and a warm serving temperature rather than cold characterized the virtual functional food created. Other positive attributes were liquid and thickness, while acidity and bitterness were among the least desired traits. These findings show how elderly people, despite predictable age-related sensory and cognitive loss, when properly involved and guided, can help envision foods that fit their needs and desires.

Highly ordered CaO from cuttlefish bone calcination for the efficient adsorption of methylene blue from water.

The aim of this study is to synthesize cheap and highly ordered CaO from cuttlefish bone (CFB) as a green alternative to conventional adsorbents such as activated carbon. This study focuses on the synthesis of highly ordered CaO via calcination of CFB, at two different temperatures (900 and 1000°C) and two holding times (0.5 and 1 h), as a potential green route for water remediation. The as-prepared highly ordered CaO was tested as an adsorbent using methylene blue (MB) as a model compound for dye contaminants in water. Different CaO adsorbent doses (0.05, 0.2, 0.4, and 0.6 g) were used, keeping the MB concentration fixed at 10 mg/L. The morphology and crystalline structure of the CFB before and after calcination was characterized via scanning electron microscope (SEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analyses, while the thermal behavior and surface functionalities were characterized by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, respectively. Adsorption experiments using different doses of CaO synthesized at 900°C for 0.5 h showed an MB removal efficiency as high as 98% by weight using 0.4 g (adsorbent)/L(solution). Two different adsorption models, the Langmuir adsorption model and the Freundlich adsorption model, along with pseudo-first-order and pseudo-second-order kinetic models, were studied to correlate the adsorption data. The removal of MB via highly ordered CaO adsorption was better modeled by the Langmuir adsorption isotherm giving (R2 =0.93), thus proving a monolayer adsorption mechanism following pseudo-second-order kinetics (R2= 0.98), confirming that chemisorption reaction occurs between the MB dye molecule and CaO.

Synthesis of a Graphene-Encapsulated Fe3C/Fe Catalyst Supported on Sporopollenin Exine Capsules and Its Use for the Reverse Water-Gas Shift Reaction.

Bioderived materials have emerged as sustainable catalyst supports for several heterogeneous reactions owing to their naturally occurring hierarchal pore size distribution, high surface area, and thermal and chemical stability. We utilize sporopollenin exine capsules (SpECs), a carbon-rich byproduct of pollen grains, composed primarily of polymerized and cross-linked lipids, to synthesize carbon-encapsulated iron nanoparticles via evaporative precipitation and pyrolytic treatments. The composition and morphology of the macroparticles were influenced by the precursor iron acetate concentration. Most significantly, the formation of crystalline phases (Fe3C, α-Fe, and graphite) detected via X-ray diffraction spectroscopy showed a critical dependence on iron loading. Significantly, the characteristic morphology and structure of the SpECs were largely preserved after high-temperature pyrolysis. Analysis of Brunauer-Emmett-Teller surface area, the D and G bands from Raman spectroscopy, and the relative ratio of the C=C to C-C bonding from high-resolution X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy suggests that porosity, surface area, and degree of graphitization were easily tuned by varying the Fe loading. A mechanism for the formation of crystalline phases and meso-porosity during the pyrolysis process is also proposed. SpEC-Fe10% proved to be highly active and selective for the reverse water-gas shift reaction at high temperatures (>600 °C).

Tool-use Extends Peripersonal Space Boundaries in Schizophrenic Patients.

BACKGROUND AND HYPOTHESIS: A primary disruption of the bodily self is considered a core feature of schizophrenia (SCZ). The "disembodied" self might be underpinned by inefficient body-related multisensory integration processes, normally occurring in the peripersonal space (PPS), a plastic sector of space surrounding the body whose extent is altered in SCZ. Although PPS is a malleable interface marking the perceptual border between self and others, no study has addressed the potential alteration of its plasticity in SCZ. We investigated the plasticity of PPS in SCZ patients after a motor training with a tool in the far space. STUDY DESIGN: Twenty-seven SCZ patients and 32 healthy controls (HC) underwent an audio-tactile task to estimate PPS boundary before (Session 1) and after (Session 3) the tool-use. Parameters of PPS, including the size and the slope of the psychometric function describing audio-tactile RTs as a function of the audio-tactile distances, were estimated. STUDY RESULTS: Results confirm a narrow PPS extent in SCZ. Surprisingly, we found PPS expansion in both groups, thus showing for the first time a preserved PPS plasticity in SCZ. Patients experienced a weaker differentiation from others, as indicated by a shallower PPS slope at Session 1 that correlated positively with negative symptoms. However, at Session 3, patients marked their bodily boundary in a steeper way, suggesting a sharper demarcation of PPS boundaries after the action with the tool. CONCLUSIONS: These findings highlight the importance of investigating the multisensory and motor roots of self-disorders, paving the way for future body-centred rehabilitation interventions that could improve patients' altered body boundary.

Food Involvement, Food Choices, and Bioactive Compounds Consumption Correlation during COVID-19 Pandemic: How Food Engagement Influences Consumers' Food Habits.

The containment measures due to the COVID-19 pandemic affected food-related activities, influencing dietary behavior, food habits, and dietary choices. This study aimed to compare the relationship between food involvement and dietary choices before and during the pandemic, investigating the role played by food in dietary habits. Responses given by 2773 Italian consumers to an online survey were studied through the Food Involvement Scale (FIS) and correlated to eating habits. FIS scores were then used to explain the importance given to food in circumstances related to well-being, health, and protection against COVID-19 and used to study the relationship between FIS and bioactive compound knowledge, use, and efficacy against COVID-19. The consumers more involved in food issues recognized the importance of food in circumstances related to well-being, health, and protection against COVID-19 and improved their diet during the pandemic. Moreover, consumers who gave more importance to food also revealed higher attention to the use of healthy substances, such as bioactive compounds, considering them effective against COVID-19. These results showed that food experiencing and involvement could be important elements to promote healthy dietary habits that are essential to maintain physical and mental health during emergency periods such as the COVID-19 pandemic.

Towards a mechanistic understanding of particle shrinkage during biomass pyrolysis via synchrotron X-ray microtomography and in-situ radiography.

Accurate modelling of particle shrinkage during biomass pyrolysis is key to the production of biochars with specific morphologies. Such biochars represent sustainable solutions to a variety of adsorption-dependent environmental remediation challenges. Modelling of particle shrinkage during biomass pyrolysis has heretofore been based solely on theory and ex-situ experimental data. Here we present the first in-situ phase-contrast X-ray imaging study of biomass pyrolysis. A novel reactor was developed to enable operando synchrotron radiography of fixed beds of pyrolysing biomass. Almond shell particles experienced more bulk shrinkage and less change in porosity than did walnut shell particles during pyrolysis, despite their similar composition. Alkaline pretreatment was found to reduce this difference in feedstock behaviour. Ex-situ synchrotron X-ray microtomography was performed to study the effects of pyrolysis on pore morphology. Pyrolysis led to a redistribution of pores away from particle surfaces, meaning newly formed surface area may be less accessible to adsorbates.

Contrast reduction and reading: assessment and reliability with the Reading Explorer test.

PURPOSE: To investigate the reliability of the Reading Explorer (REX) charts and to assess the impact of text contrast reduction (1.5 cycle/degree) on reading speed in subjects with normal and low vision. METHODS: Standard visual acuity (ETDRS charts), reading speed (MNread charts), and contrast sensitivity (Pelli-Robson charts) measurements were obtained in 3 groups of subjects stratified by visual acuity level in the better eye from 0.0 to 1.0 logMAR, with intermediate cutoffs at 0.3 and 0.6 logMAR. Measurements of reading speed for decreasing levels of text contrast were obtained with the REX charts using a 1.5 cycle/degree text. RESULTS: Since in many patients with lower vision a plateau of maximum reading speed across different levels of text contrast was not found, reliability indexes were computed for average reading speed and reading contrast threshold. In the group with lower visual acuity, 95% limits of agreement were +/-0.134 log word/minute and +/-0.175 log contrast sensitivity, suggesting good reliability. The proportion of subjects with a 20% loss of reading speed from 90% to 45% text contrast was estimated to be 1/3 at 0.6 logMAR visual acuity level and 2/3 at 1.0 logMAR. CONCLUSIONS: The adverse effect of decreased text contrast, which may be found in ordinary reading material, on the reading performance of subjects with advanced and initial low vision is probably underestimated. The REX test proved to be a reliable investigation tool for this phenomenon.

Vending Machines and Cardiovascular Prevention: How to Implement Healthy Dietary Habits at School.

Too many children in Europe are overweight. The unregulated marketing of unhealthy products target to children, and the installation of vending machines stocked with unhealthy snacks in public venues, are contributing factors. While innovative legislation on the regulation of the nutritional quality of food and beverages sold in vending machines in schools has become law in some European countries, it is not on the political agenda in others. However, an easy alternative solution could be to introduce a clause in all new tenders for vending machines, which states that the successful supplier must commit to ensuring that at least 50% of the products sold have a medium-to-small portion size, are low in saturated fat, salt, calories, and have no added sugar. This strategy, called "A vending machine for a friend", was developed at CNR of Rome, and with the support of the SIPREC, the LHA and the EHN, and with the alliance with teachers and students, is being rolled out in some Italian and Lithuanian high schools. Creating a healthy nutritional environment with the aim of encouraging healthier choices, is a real possibility.

Biomethane recovery from olive mill residues through anaerobic digestion: A review of the state of the art technology.

Residues from production of olive oil are generated yearly in great amounts, both in liquid and solid forms. Different waste treatment systems were proposed in literature, to minimize environmental pollution while raising the energy recovery. Anaerobic digestion is one of the available routes to recover energy from waste via production of biogas while reducing organic load and pollutants to the environment. The use of farming and agro industrial wastes as co-substrate in anaerobic digestion can induce benefits related to the simultaneous treatment of different wastes. In particular, co-digestion can significantly enhance the process stability as well as the bio-methane generation. This work aims at reviewing the latest achievements in anaerobic digestion of olive mill residues, focusing on the aspects that can mostly favor the process, principally from a technical but also from an economical point of view. For the mono-digestion processes, methane yields up to 419 LCH4 kgVS-1 were reported for olive mill wastewaters (Calabrò et al. 2018), while a production of 740 LCH4 kgVS-1 was achieved when digesting olive mill solid waste together with olive mill wastewater and milk whey (Battista et al. 2015). An increase up to 143% in the methane yield was also reported when the feedstock was subjected to a 5 days aeration before digesting it in a semi-continuous stirred tank reactor (González-González and Cuadros 2015).

Recommendations for Cardiovascular Prevention During the Sars-Cov-2 Pandemic: An Executive Document by the Board of the Italian Society of Cardiovascular Prevention.

In 2020, the Sars-Cov-2 pandemic is causing a huge and dramatic impact on healthcare systems worldwide. During this emergency, fragile patients suffering from other comorbidities, especially patients susceptible to or affected by cardiovascular disease, are the ones most exposed to the poorer outcomes. Therefore, it is still mandatory to continue to strictly adhere to the rules of cardiovascular prevention. This document aims to provide all doctors with simple and clear recommendations in order to spread useful messages to the widest number of subjects in order to continue the battle against cardiovascular diseases even in times of pandemic.

Identification of bla(IMP-22) in Pseudomonas spp. in urban wastewater and nosocomial environments: biochemical characterization of a new IMP metallo-enzyme variant and its genetic location.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of the study was the biochemical characterization of a new variant of the metallo-beta-lactamase, IMP-22. Moreover, the genetic environment of the bla(IMP-22) gene was investigated in Pseudomonas fluorescens and Pseudomonas aeruginosa collected from urban wastewater and a teaching hospital in L'Aquila, Italy. METHODS: Molecular characterization of genetic elements was carried out by PCR and DNA sequencing methods. The new enzyme was purified from recombinant Escherichia coli BL21(DE)Rosetta/pBC-SK/IMP-22. Steady-state kinetic parameters (K(m) and V(max)) were determined for a large pattern of substrates. RESULTS: A new IMP metallo-beta-lactamase gene was found in a class 1 integron and in one case, in a plasmid of Pseudomonas spp. The bla(IMP-22) encodes for a pre-protein of 246 amino acids and the N-terminus of the mature beta-lactamase (NH(2)-PDLK) was also determined. The molecular mass and pI were 24 930 Da and 6.2, respectively. On the basis of the kinetic parameters calculated (K(m) and V(max)), IMP-22 was found to hydrolyse narrow- and extended-spectrum beta-lactams. Enzyme activity was found to be inhibited by metal chelators such as EDTA, 1,10-o-phenathroline and dipicolinic acid with an IC(50) of 800, 750 and 300 microM, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The finding of the bla(IMP-22) gene in P. fluorescens environmental strains and P. aeruginosa clinical isolate suggests the ongoing spread of bla(MBL) genes in several bacterial species and in different environments.

Non-pharmacological control of plasma cholesterol levels.

The importance of non-pharmacological control of plasma cholesterol levels in the population is increasing, along with the number of subjects whose plasma lipid levels are non-optimal, or frankly elevated, according to international guidelines. In this context, a panel of experts, organized and coordinated by the Nutrition Foundation of Italy, has evaluated the nutritional and lifestyle interventions to be adopted in the control of plasma cholesterol levels (and specifically of LDL cholesterol levels). This Consensus document summarizes the view of the panel on this topic, with the aim to provide an updated support to clinicians and other health professionals involved in cardiovascular prevention.

[Consensus document and recommendations for the prevention of cardiovascular disease in Italy - 2018]. / Documento di consenso e raccomandazioni per la prevenzione cardiovascolare in Italia 2018.

Cardiovascular prevention represents a cornerstone of modern strategies to reduce the burden of cardiovascular disease. It is of key importance to prevent cardiovascular diseases and associated events, not only to reduce morbidity and mortality, but also to increase the years of wellness in the aging population and to make the growing socio-economic burden imposed by cardiovascular events more sustainable.The current approach to prevention is based on an integrated use of effective lifestyle measures and, whenever appropriate, of antihypertensive and antidiabetic drugs, lipid-lowering agents and antiplatelet drugs.Given that population characteristics, in terms of ethnicity, demography and lifestyle habits, and healthcare system organizations differ among countries, international guidelines are not always applicable to specific countries and, often, are difficult to translate into daily clinical practice.In order to afford the specific features of Italy, 10 Scientific Societies and Research Institutions, mostly involved in preventive strategies, contributed to the present Italian consensus document, which includes brief, practical recommendations to support the preventive actions within the physician community and the general practice setting.

Intraocular lenses with surface aspherization: Interferometric study.

PURPOSE: To accurately evaluate in an optical laboratory 2 different types of intraocular lenses (IOLs). SETTING: Department of Oto-Neuro-Ophthalmological Surgical Sciences and CNR-Institute for Applied Optics, Florence Italy. METHODS: In this study, optical testing facilities based on interferometry were used. The IOLs were inspected with laser light, and interference patterns were acquired and processed, obtaining the physical parameters accounting for the lens behavior. Comparison of the respective performances within the pseudophakic eye was provided in terms of modulation transfer function (MTF) using lens diameters from 3.0 mm to 5.0 mm. The data were inserted in a mathematical model of the eye, and the relevant merit functions were computed with a ray-tracing program. RESULTS: Sample sets of both all-spherical IOLs and IOLs with aspherical surfaces were inspected. The interferometric maps showed clear evidence of the opposite wave aberration introduced by the different IOL types. With a 3.0 mm pupil diameter, both IOL types performed as almost ideal lenses, while with a 5.0 mm diameter, IOLs with aspherical surfaces effectively compensated for the spherical aberration of the cornea and had a significantly higher MTF. CONCLUSIONS: The interferometric approach to IOL testing provided accurate data on the physical parameters of the IOL. With a measuring and computing chain that includes eye modeling and ray tracing, it was possible to analyze in detail the process by which IOLs with aspherical surfaces compensate for the spherical aberration of the cornea under photopic, mesopic, and scotopic conditions.