Gaming Disorder and Computer-Mediated Communication in Children and Adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorder.

Background: This study investigates how children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) make use of computer gaming and computer-mediated communication (CMC) in comparison to their nonautistic peers. Method: Parents filled out a standardized questionnaire on media use, gaming disorder (GD), and CMC. Sixty-two boys with a diagnosis of ASD aged 4 to 17 years (mean = 11.5; SD = 3.2) were compared to 31 healthy control boys (mean = 11.5; SD = 3.7). Results: Children and adolescents with ASD used CMC less frequently than their nonautistic peers but played video games for longer times than the controls. They preferred playing alone rather than in company of others and less frequently in multiplayer mode. Levels of GD symptoms were higher in boys with ASD. Conclusions: Children and adolescents with ASD seem to be an especially vulnerable subpopulation for GD. For them, the gaming situation (alone and in single-player mode) and CMC behavior seem to correspond to social patterns in real life. Our findings also provide support for the inclusion of offline gaming in the GD definition.

Common variants in genes of the postsynaptic FMRP signalling pathway are risk factors for autism spectrum disorders.

Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are heterogeneous disorders with a high heritability and complex genetic architecture. Due to the central role of the fragile X mental retardation gene 1 protein (FMRP) pathway in ASD we investigated common functional variants of ASD risk genes regulating FMRP. We genotyped ten SNPs in two German patient sets (N = 192 and N = 254 families, respectively) and report association for rs7170637 (CYFIP1; set 1 and combined sets), rs6923492 (GRM1; combined sets), and rs25925 (CAMK4; combined sets). An additional risk score based on variants with an odds ratio (OR) >1.25 in set 1 and weighted by their respective log transmitted/untransmitted ratio revealed a significant effect (OR 1.30, 95 % CI 1.11-1.53; P = 0.0013) in the combined German sample. A subsequent meta-analysis including the two German samples, the "Strict/European" ASD subsample of the Autism Genome Project (1,466 families) and a French case/control (541/366) cohort showed again association of rs7170637-A (OR 0.85, 95 % CI 0.75-0.96; P = 0.007) and rs25925-G (OR 1.31, 95 % CI 1.04-1.64; P = 0.021) with ASD. Functional analyses revealed that these minor alleles predicted to alter splicing factor binding sites significantly increase levels of an alternative mRNA isoform of the respective gene while keeping the overall expression of the gene constant. These findings underpin the role of ASD candidate genes in postsynaptic FMRP regulation suggesting that an imbalance of specific isoforms of CYFIP1, an FMRP interaction partner, and CAMK4, a transcriptional regulator of the FMRP gene, modulates ASD risk. Both gene products are related to neuronal regulation of synaptic plasticity, a pathomechanism underlying ASD and may thus present future targets for pharmacological therapies in ASD.

Common EIF4E variants modulate risk for autism spectrum disorders in the high-functioning range.

The genetic architecture of Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) is complex. Common genetic variation has especially been related to high-functioning ASD. In addition, some studies favoured analysis of strictly diagnosed autism individuals, which resulted in more robust findings than the combined analysis of all spectrum individuals. Functional variants modulating EIF4E expression have previously been indicated as risk factors for ASD. Pharmacological modulation of glutamate receptors which regulate EIF4E activity resulted in reduced repetitive behaviours in human and animal studies. Based on these findings, we tested common EIF4E variants for association with overall ASD, with strict autism and with the strict high-functioning autism (strict HFA) subgroup, and their effect on repetitive and/or stereotypic behaviour. We observed over-transmission of rs13109000G in the strict HFA and the strict autism cohort but not in the larger ASD cohort. We report protective effects for the minor allele of rs4699369T on stereotyped and ritualized behaviour in the overall ASD cohort, the strict autism but not in the strict HFA group. In addition, a protective role for rs4699369T and a risk effect of rs12498533G on hand and finger mannerisms was observed. These results need to be replicated in larger ASD and strict autism samples. The predicted impact on transcription through the ASD associated EIF4E variants rs4699369T and rs12498533G as well as the association of the EIF4E interaction partners FMRP and CYFIP1 with ASD point to an mRNA mediated pathomechanism for ASD.

Quantitative genome-wide association study of six phenotypic subdomains identifies novel genome-wide significant variants in autism spectrum disorder.

Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are highly heritable and are characterized by deficits in social communication and restricted and repetitive behaviors. Twin studies on phenotypic subdomains suggest a differing underlying genetic etiology. Studying genetic variation explaining phenotypic variance will help to identify specific underlying pathomechanisms. We investigated the effect of common variation on ASD subdomains in two cohorts including >2500 individuals. Based on the Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised (ADI-R), we identified and confirmed six subdomains with a SNP-based genetic heritability h2SNP = 0.2-0.4. The subdomains nonverbal communication (NVC), social interaction (SI), and peer interaction (PI) shared genetic risk factors, while the subdomains of repetitive sensory-motor behavior (RB) and restricted interests (RI) were genetically independent of each other. The polygenic risk score (PRS) for ASD as categorical diagnosis explained 2.3-3.3% of the variance of SI, joint attention (JA), and PI, 4.5% for RI, 1.2% of RB, but only 0.7% of NVC. We report eight genome-wide significant hits-partially replicating previous findings-and 292 known and novel candidate genes. The underlying biological mechanisms were related to neuronal transmission and development. At the SNP and gene level, all subdomains showed overlap, with the exception of RB. However, no overlap was observed at the functional level. In summary, the ADI-R algorithm-derived subdomains related to social communication show a shared genetic etiology in contrast to restricted and repetitive behaviors. The ASD-specific PRS overlapped only partially, suggesting an additional role of specific common variation in shaping the phenotypic expression of ASD subdomains.