Impacts of the Covid-19 pandemic on the health of university students.

The Covid-19 pandemic caused by the novel Sars-CoV-2 coronavirus, has resulted in millions of deaths and disruption to daily life across the globe. University students have been additionally affected by a sudden move to online learning, the closure of campuses and dramatic societal changes that have upended their experiences of higher education. Here we focus on the physical and mental health consequences of the pandemic for this population sector during 2020, and the interdependencies of these impacts. We survey the challenges for infection control on campuses and for monitoring the disease dynamics in student communities. Finally, we explore the psychological and mental health problems that have been exacerbated by the pandemic and evaluate the underlying factors that are most relevant to students.

Novel defect in phosphatidylinositol 4-kinase type 2-alpha (PI4K2A) at the membrane-enzyme interface is associated with metabolic cutis laxa.

Inherited cutis laxa, or inelastic, sagging skin is a genetic condition of premature and generalised connective tissue ageing, affecting various elastic components of the extracellular matrix. Several cutis laxa syndromes are inborn errors of metabolism and lead to severe neurological symptoms. In a patient with cutis laxa, a choreoathetoid movement disorder, dysmorphic features and intellectual disability we performed exome sequencing to elucidate the underlying genetic defect. We identified the amino acid substitution R275W in phosphatidylinositol 4-kinase type IIα, caused by a homozygous missense mutation in the PI4K2A gene. We used lipidomics, complexome profiling and functional studies to measure phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate synthesis in the patient and evaluated PI4K2A deficient mice to define a novel metabolic disorder. The R275W residue, located on the surface of the protein, is involved in forming electrostatic interactions with the membrane. The catalytic activity of PI4K2A in patient fibroblasts was severely reduced and lipid mass spectrometry showed that particular acyl-chain pools of PI4P and PI(4,5)P2 were decreased. Phosphoinositide lipids play a major role in intracellular signalling and trafficking and regulate the balance between proliferation and apoptosis. Phosphatidylinositol 4-kinases such as PI4K2A mediate the first step in the main metabolic pathway that generates PI4P, PI(4,5)P2 and PI(3,4,5)P3 . Although neurologic involvement is common, cutis laxa has not been reported previously in metabolic defects affecting signalling. Here we describe a patient with a complex neurological phenotype, premature ageing and a mutation in PI4K2A, illustrating the importance of this enzyme in the generation of inositol lipids with particular acylation characteristics.

The Great Escape: how phosphatidylinositol 4-kinases and PI4P promote vesicle exit from the Golgi (and drive cancer).

Phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate (PI4P) is a membrane glycerophospholipid and a major regulator of the characteristic appearance of the Golgi complex as well as its vesicular trafficking, signalling and metabolic functions. Phosphatidylinositol 4-kinases, and in particular the PI4KIIIß isoform, act in concert with PI4P to recruit macromolecular complexes to initiate the biogenesis of trafficking vesicles for several Golgi exit routes. Dysregulation of Golgi PI4P metabolism and the PI4P protein interactome features in many cancers and is often associated with tumour progression and a poor prognosis. Increased expression of PI4P-binding proteins, such as GOLPH3 or PITPNC1, induces a malignant secretory phenotype and the release of proteins that can remodel the extracellular matrix, promote angiogenesis and enhance cell motility. Aberrant Golgi PI4P metabolism can also result in the impaired post-translational modification of proteins required for focal adhesion formation and cell-matrix interactions, thereby potentiating the development of aggressive metastatic and invasive tumours. Altered expression of the Golgi-targeted PI 4-kinases, PI4KIIIß, PI4KIIα and PI4KIIß, or the PI4P phosphate Sac1, can also modulate oncogenic signalling through effects on TGN-endosomal trafficking. A Golgi trafficking role for a PIP 5-kinase has been recently described, which indicates that PI4P is not the only functionally important phosphoinositide at this subcellular location. This review charts new developments in our understanding of phosphatidylinositol 4-kinase function at the Golgi and how PI4P-dependent trafficking can be deregulated in malignant disease.

The endogenous subcellular localisations of the long chain fatty acid-activating enzymes ACSL3 and ACSL4 in sarcoma and breast cancer cells.

Fatty acid uptake and metabolism are often dysregulated in cancer cells. Fatty acid activation is a critical step that allows these biomolecules to enter cellular metabolic pathways such as mitochondrial ß-oxidation for ATP generation or the lipogenic routes that generate bioactive lipids such as the inositol phospholipids. Fatty acid activation by the addition of coenzyme A is catalysed by a family of enzymes called the acyl CoA synthetase ligases (ACSL). Furthermore, enhanced expression of particular ACSL isoforms, such as ACSL4, is a feature of some more aggressive cancers and may contribute to the oncogenic phenotype. This study focuses on ACSL3 and ACSL4, closely related structural homologues that preferentially activate palmitate and arachidonate fatty acids, respectively. In this study, immunohistochemical screening of multiple soft tissue tumour arrays revealed that ACSL3 and ACSL4 were highly, but differentially, expressed in a subset of leiomyosarcomas, fibrosarcomas and rhabdomyosarcomas, with consistent cytoplasmic and granular stainings of tumour cells. The intracellular localisations of endogenously expressed ACSL3 and ACSL4 were further investigated by detailed subcellular fractionation analyses of HT1080 fibrosarcoma and MCF-7 breast cancer cells. ACSL3 distribution closely overlapped with proteins involved in trafficking from the trans-Golgi network and endosomes. In contrast, the ACSL4 localisation pattern more closely followed that of calnexin which is an  endoplasmic reticulum resident chaperone. Confocal immunofluorescence imaging of MCF-7 cells confirmed the intracellular localisations of both enzymes. These observations reveal new information regarding the compartmentation of fatty acid metabolism in cancer cells.

PIPs in neurological diseases.

Phosphoinositide (PIP) lipids regulate many aspects of cell function in the nervous system including receptor signalling, secretion, endocytosis, migration and survival. Levels of PIPs such as PI4P, PI(4,5)P2 and PI(3,4,5)P3 are normally tightly regulated by phosphoinositide kinases and phosphatases. Deregulation of these biochemical pathways leads to lipid imbalances, usually on intracellular endosomal membranes, and these changes have been linked to a number of major neurological diseases including Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, epilepsy, stroke, cancer and a range of rarer inherited disorders including brain overgrowth syndromes, Charcot-Marie-Tooth neuropathies and neurodevelopmental conditions such as Lowe's syndrome. This article analyses recent progress in this area and explains how PIP lipids are involved, to varying degrees, in almost every class of neurological disease. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Brain Lipids.

Lipid rafts, microdomain heterogeneity and inter-organelle contacts: impacts on membrane preparation for proteomic studies.

In recent years, there has been considerable interest in mapping the protein content of isolated organelles using mass spectrometry. However, many subcellular compartments are highly dynamic with diverse and intricate architectures that are not always preserved during membrane isolation procedures. Furthermore, lateral heterogeneities in intra-membrane lipid and protein concentrations underlie the formation of membrane microdomains, trafficking vesicles and inter-membrane contacts. These complexities in membrane organisation have important consequences for the design of membrane preparation strategies and test the very concept of organelle purity. We illustrate how some of these biological considerations are relevant to membrane preparation and assess the numerous potential pitfalls in attempting to purify organelles from mammalian cells.

The phosphatidylinositol 4-kinases: don't call it a comeback.

Phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate (PtdIns4P) is a quantitatively minor membrane phospholipid which is the precursor of PtdIns(4,5)P (2) in the classical agonist-regulated phospholipase C signalling pathway. However, PtdIns4P also governs the recruitment and function of numerous trafficking molecules, principally in the Golgi complex. The majority of phosphoinositides (PIs) phosphorylated at the D4 position of the inositol headgroup are derived from PtdIns4P and play roles in a diverse array of fundamental cellular processes including secretion, cell migration, apoptosis and mitogenesis; therefore, PtdIns4P biosynthesis can be regarded as key point of regulation in many PI-dependent processes.Two structurally distinct sequence families, the type II and type III PtdIns 4-kinases, are responsible for PtdIns4P synthesis in eukaryotic organisms. These important proteins are differentially expressed, localised and regulated by distinct mechanisms, indicating that the enzymes perform non-redundant roles in trafficking and signalling. In recent years, major advances have been made in our understanding of PtdIns4K biology and here we summarise current knowledge of PtdIns4K structure, function and regulation.

Identification of Mac-2-binding protein as a putative marker of neuroendocrine tumors from the analysis of cell line secretomes.

Neuroendocrine tumors (NETs) can arise from a variety of organs. They can vary widely in clinical behavior; consequently, optimizing their treatment plan can be problematic. NETs display diverse tumor biology; however, most secrete peptides such as chromogranin A into the circulation, consistent with their neuroendocrine origin. In this study, we sought to identify other potential markers for NETs by analyzing the secreted proteomes of three neuroendocrine cell lines. BON-1, NCI-H727, and SHP-77 cells were grown in serum-free media, and the secreted proteins were separated by SDS-PAGE and identified by LC-MS/MS. We identified 205 proteins of which 61 were secreted by two or more of the cell lines and 19 were secreted by all three lines. Mac-2-binding protein (Mac-2BP) was found to be secreted by all three cell lines, and this was confirmed by Western blotting. Immunohistochemical analysis found 29 of 33 NET cases from different primary sites to be positive for Mac-2BP. Serum Mac-2BP was significantly elevated in NET patients compared with healthy controls (p < 0.001). This study demonstrated that analysis of the secreted proteomes of neuroendocrine cell lines can identify potential biomarkers for NET. Initial assessment showed that serum Mac-2BP is significantly elevated in patients with NET and is expressed by the majority of NET tissues.

Loss of phosphatidylinositol 4-kinase 2alpha activity causes late onset degeneration of spinal cord axons.

Phosphoinositide (PI) lipids are intracellular membrane signaling intermediates and effectors produced by localized PI kinase and phosphatase activities. Although many signaling roles of PI kinases have been identified in cultured cell lines, transgenic animal studies have produced unexpected insight into the in vivo functions of specific PI 3- and 5-kinases, but no mammalian PI 4-kinase (PI4K) knockout has previously been reported. Prior studies using cultured cells implicated the PI4K2alpha isozyme in diverse functions, including receptor signaling, ion channel regulation, endosomal trafficking, and regulated secretion. We now show that despite these important functions, mice lacking PI4K2alpha kinase activity initially appear normal. However, adult Pi4k2a(GT/GT) animals develop a progressive neurological disease characterized by tremor, limb weakness, urinary incontinence, and premature mortality. Histological analysis of aged Pi4k2a(GT/GT) animals revealed lipofuscin-like deposition and gliosis in the cerebellum, and loss of Purkinje cells. Peripheral nerves are essentially normal, but massive axonal degeneration was found in the spinal cord in both ascending and descending tracts. These results reveal a previously undescribed role for aberrant PI signaling in neurological disease that resembles autosomal recessive hereditary spastic paraplegia.

CDP-diacylglycerol phospholipid synthesis in detergent-soluble, non-raft, membrane microdomains of the endoplasmic reticulum.

Phosphatidylinositol (PI) is essential for numerous cell functions and is generated by consecutive reactions catalyzed by CDP-diacylglycerol synthase (CDS) and PI synthase. In this study, we investigated the membrane organization of CDP-diacylglycerol synthesis. Separation of mildly disrupted A431 cell membranes on sucrose density gradients revealed cofractionation of CDS and PI synthase activities with cholesterol-poor, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membranes and partial overlap with plasma membrane caveolae. Cofractionation of CDS activity with caveolae was also observed when low-buoyant density caveolin-enriched membranes were prepared using a carbonate-based method. However, immunoisolation studies determined that CDS activity localized to ER membrane fragments containing calnexin and type III inositol (1,4,5)-trisphosphate receptors but not to caveolae. Membrane fragmentation in neutral pH buffer established that CDP-diacylglycerol and PI syntheses were restricted to a subfraction of the calnexin-positive ER. In contrast to lipid rafts enriched for caveolin, cholesterol, and GM1 glycosphingolipids, the CDS-containing ER membranes were detergent soluble. In cell imaging studies, CDS and calnexin colocalized in microdomain-sized patches of the ER and also unexpectedly at the plasma membrane. These results demonstrate that key components of the PI pathway localize to nonraft, phospholipid-synthesizing microdomains of the ER that are also enriched for calnexin.

Detergent-free isolation and characterization of cholesterol-rich membrane domains from trans-Golgi network vesicles.

Cholesterol is an abundant lipid of the trans-Golgi network (TGN) and of certain endosomal membranes where cholesterol-rich microdomains are important in the organization and compartmentalization of vesicular trafficking. Here we describe the development of a rapid method to isolate a cholesterol-rich endomembrane fraction. We show that widely used subcellular fractionation techniques incompletely separate cholesterol-rich membranes, such as the TGN, from organelles, such as late endosomes and lysosomes. To address this issue, we devised a new subcellular fractionation scheme involving two rounds of velocity centrifugation, membrane sonication, and discontinuous sucrose density gradient centrifugation. This strategy resulted in the isolation of a cholesterol and GM1 glycosphingolipid-enriched membrane fraction that was completely cleared of plasma membrane, endoplasmic reticulum, and mitochondria. This buoyant fraction was enriched for the TGN and recycling endosome proteins Rab11 and syntaxin-6, and it was well resolved from cis-Golgi and early and late endosomal membranes. We demonstrate that this technique can give useful insights into the compartmentation of phosphoinositide synthesis, and it facilitates the isolation of cholesterol-rich membranes from a population of TGN-trafficking vesicles.

Relationship between phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate synthesis, membrane organization, and lateral diffusion of PI4KIIalpha at the trans-Golgi network.

Type II phosphatidylinositol 4-kinase IIalpha (PI4KIIalpha) is the dominant phosphatidylinositol kinase activity measured in mammalian cells and has important functions in intracellular vesicular trafficking. Recently PI4KIIalpha has been shown to have important roles in neuronal survival and tumorigenesis. This study focuses on the relationship between membrane cholesterol levels, phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate (PI4P) synthesis, and PI4KIIalpha mobility. Enzyme kinetic measurements, sterol substitution studies, and membrane fragmentation analyses all revealed that cholesterol regulates PI4KIIalpha activity indirectly through effects on membrane structure. In particular, we found that cholesterol levels determined the distribution of PI4KIIalpha to biophysically distinct membrane domains. Imaging studies on cells expressing enhanced green fluorescent protein (eGFP)-tagged PI4KIIalpha demonstrated that cholesterol depletion resulted in morphological changes to the juxtanuclear membrane pool of the enzyme. Lateral membrane diffusion of eGFP-PI4KIIalpha was assessed by fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) experiments, which revealed the existence of both mobile and immobile pools of the enzyme. Sterol depletion decreased the size of the mobile pool of PI4KIIalpha. Further measurements revealed that the reduction in the mobile fraction of PI4KIIalpha correlated with a loss of trans-Golgi network (TGN) membrane connectivity. We conclude that cholesterol modulates PI4P synthesis through effects on membrane organization and enzyme diffusion.

Immunohistochemical staining reveals differential expression of ACSL3 and ACSL4 in hepatocellular carcinoma and hepatic gastrointestinal metastases.

Long-chain fatty acyl CoA synthetases (ACSLs) activate fatty acids by CoA addition thus facilitating their intracellular metabolism. Dysregulated ACSL expression features in several cancers and can affect processes such as ferroptosis, fatty acid ß-oxidation, prostaglandin biosynthesis, steroidogenesis and phospholipid acyl chain remodelling. Here we investigate long chain acyl-CoA synthetase 3 (ACSL3) and long chain acyl-CoA synthetase 4 (ACSL4) expression in liver malignancies. The expression and subcellular localisations of the ACSL3 and ACSL4 isoforms in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) and hepatic metastases were assessed by immunohistochemical analyses of multiple tumour tissue arrays and by subcellular fractionation of cultured HepG2 cells. The expression of both enzymes was increased in HCC compared with normal liver. Expression of ACSL3 was similar in HCC and hepatic metastases but lower in healthy tissue. Increased ACSL3 expression distinguished HCC from CCA with a sensitivity of 87.2% and a specificity of 75%. ACSL4 expression was significantly greater in HCC than in all other tumours and distinguished HCC from normal liver tissue with a sensitivity of 93.8% and specificity of 93.6%. Combined ACSL3 and ACSL4 staining scores distinguished HCC from hepatic metastases with 80.1% sensitivity and 77.1% specificity. These enzymes had partially overlapping intracellular distributions, ACSL4 localised to the plasma membrane and both isoforms associated with lipid droplets and the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). In conclusion, analysis of ACSL3 and ACSL4 expression can distinguish different classes of hepatic tumours.

Preparation of membrane rafts.

The concept that biological membranes contain microdomains of specialized lipid and protein composition has attracted great attention in recent years. Initially, the focus in the field was very much on the characterization of cholesterol-and sphingolipid-rich plasma membrane microdomains that were resistant to solubilization in the cold non-ionic detergent Triton X-100. Such detergent-insoluble membrane domains were of low buoyant density and could be readily purified on sucrose equilibrium density gradients. The intrinsic buoyancy of the detergent-insoluble domains gave rise to the term "lipid rafts." Cholesterol- and sphingolipid-rich rafts at the plasma membrane have been implicated in a wide range of cellular processes, including pathogen invasion, receptor signaling, and endocytosis. However, work with other non-ionic detergents such as Lubrol WX and Brij-98 has revealed the existence of various raft subtypes with differing lipid compositions and proposed functions. More recently, there has been some focus on isolating lipid rafts from intracellular organelles, in particular membranes from the Golgi-endosomal pathway, where raft lipids have been proposed to function in processes such as the sorting of vesicular cargo and the processing of amyloid precursor protein. While there remains a large degree of controversy surrounding the purity, the physiological importance, and even the existence of different types of lipid rafts in intact cells, the ability to routinely purify such domains has led to significant progress in understanding the functional architecture of biological membranes. We describe a number of widely used methods to prepare rafts, based on early preparations of caveolae by density gradient ultracentrifugation and immunoaffinity precipitation.

Quantification of multiple phosphatidylinositol 4-kinase isozyme activities in cell extracts.

A wide spectrum of intracellular signaling events mediated by up to seven different phosphorylated forms of phosphatidylinositol (PtdIns) occurs in all eukaryotic cells. The activities of multiple, nondegenerate PI kinases and phosphatases control these signaling events. The PI 4-kinase isozymes account for the major PI kinase activity in many different cell types, and the activity of each isozyme is differentially regulated. The ability to measure and distinguish the activity of individual enzymes is therefore important and forms the subject of the methods in this chapter. We describe the use and application of a versatile radiometric assay to measuring PI 4-kinase activity in a variety of biochemical contexts, from purified enzymes to membrane preparations and permeabilized cells. Until a suitable nonradioactive reagent becomes available, this assay is destined to remain the most widely used method.

Assay for CDP-Diacylglycerol Generation by CDS in Membrane Fractions.

CDP-DAG is a liponucleotide formed by the condensation of CTP with the phospholipid phosphatidic acid in a reaction catalyzed by CDP-DAG synthase (CDS). CDP-DAG is required for the synthesis of phosphatidylinositol; the parent molecule whence all seven phosphoinositides including the signaling molecules PI4P, PI(4,5)P2, and PI(3,4,5)P3 are derived. This protocol describes a highly sensitive radiometric assay to detect the generation of CDP-DAG on isolated biological membrane fractions.

Chromosomal Instability and Phosphoinositide Pathway Gene Signatures in Glioblastoma Multiforme.

Structural rearrangements of chromosome 10 are frequently observed in glioblastoma multiforme and over 80 % of tumour samples archived in the catalogue of somatic mutations in cancer database had gene copy number loss for PI4K2A which encodes phosphatidylinositol 4-kinase type IIalpha. PI4K2A loss of heterozygosity mirrored that of PTEN, another enzyme that regulates phosphoinositide levels and also PIK3AP1, MINPP1, INPP5A and INPP5F. These results indicated a reduction in copy number for a set of phosphoinositide signalling genes that co-localise to chromosome 10q. This analysis was extended to a panel of phosphoinositide pathway genes on other chromosomes and revealed a number of previously unreported associations with glioblastoma multiforme. Of particular note were highly penetrant copy number losses for a group of X-linked phosphoinositide phosphatase genes OCRL, MTM1 and MTMR8; copy number amplifications for the chromosome 19 genes PIP5K1C, AKT2 and PIK3R2, and also for the phospholipase C genes PLCB1, PLCB4 and PLCG1 on chromosome 20. These mutations are likely to affect signalling and trafficking functions dependent on the PI(4,5)P2, PI(3,4,5)P3 and PI(3,5)P2 lipids as well as the inositol phosphates IP3, IP5 and IP6. Analysis of flanking genes with functionally unrelated products indicated that chromosomal instability as opposed to a phosphoinositide-specific process underlay this pattern of copy number variation. This in silico study suggests that in glioblastoma multiforme, karyotypic changes have the potential to cause multiple abnormalities in sets of genes involved in phosphoinositide metabolism and this may be important for understanding drug resistance and phosphoinositide pathway redundancy in the advanced disease state.

Phosphatidylinositol 4-kinase IIß negatively regulates invadopodia formation and suppresses an invasive cellular phenotype.

The type II phosphatidylinositol 4-kinase (PI4KII) enzymes synthesize the lipid phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate (PI(4)P), which has been detected at the Golgi complex and endosomal compartments and recruits clathrin adaptors. Despite common mechanistic similarities between the isoforms, the extent of their redundancy is unclear. We found that depletion of PI4KIIα and PI4KIIß using small interfering RNA led to actin remodeling. Depletion of PI4KIIß also induced the formation of invadopodia containing membrane type I matrix metalloproteinase (MT1-MMP). Depletion of PI4KII isoforms also differentially affected trans-Golgi network (TGN) pools of PI(4)P and post-TGN traffic. PI4KIIß depletion caused increased MT1-MMP trafficking to invasive structures at the plasma membrane and was accompanied by reduced colocalization of MT1-MMP with membranes containing the endosomal markers Rab5 and Rab7 but increased localization with the exocytic Rab8. Depletion of PI4KIIß was sufficient to confer an aggressive invasive phenotype on minimally invasive HeLa and MCF-7 cell lines. Mining oncogenomic databases revealed that loss of the PI4K2B allele and underexpression of PI4KIIß mRNA are associated with human cancers. This finding supports the cell data and suggests that PI4KIIß may be a clinically significant suppressor of invasion. We propose that PI4KIIß synthesizes a pool of PI(4)P that maintains MT1-MMP traffic in the degradative pathway and suppresses the formation of invadopodia.

Identification and characterization of differentially active pools of type IIalpha phosphatidylinositol 4-kinase activity in unstimulated A431 cells.

The seven known polyphosphoinositides have been implicated in a wide range of regulated and constitutive cell functions, including cell-surface signalling, vesicle trafficking and cytoskeletal reorganization. In order to understand the spatial and temporal control of these diverse cell functions it is necessary to characterize the subcellular distribution of a wide variety of polyphosphoinositide synthesis and signalling events. The predominant phosphatidylinositol kinase activity in many mammalian cell types involves the synthesis of the signalling precursor, phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate, in a reaction catalysed by the recently cloned PI4KIIalpha (type IIalpha phosphatidylinositol 4-kinase). However the regulation of this enzyme and the cellular distribution of its product in different organelles are very poorly understood. This report identifies the existence, in unstimulated cells, of two major subcellular membrane fractions, which contain PI4KIIalpha possessing different levels of intrinsic activity. Separation of these membranes from each other and from contaminating activities was achieved by density gradient ultracentrifugation at pH 11 in a specific detergent mixture in which both membrane fractions, but not other membranes, were insoluble. Kinetic comparison of the purified membrane fractions revealed a 4-fold difference in K (m) for phosphatidylinositol and a 3.5-fold difference in V (max), thereby indicating a different mechanism of regulation to that described previously for agonist-stimulated cells. These marked differences in basal activity and the occurrence of this isozyme in multiple organelles emphasize the need to investigate cell signalling via PI4KIIalpha at the level of individual organelles rather than whole-cell lysates.

Modeling the effects of cyclodextrin on intracellular membrane vesicles from Cos-7 cells prepared by sonication and carbonate treatment.

Cholesterol has important functions in the organization of membrane structure and this may be mediated via the formation of cholesterol-rich, liquid-ordered membrane microdomains often referred to as lipid rafts. Methyl-beta-cyclodextrin (cyclodextrin) is commonly used in cell biology studies to extract cholesterol and therefore disrupt lipid rafts. However, in this study we reassessed this experimental strategy and investigated the effects of cyclodextrin on the physical properties of sonicated and carbonate-treated intracellular membrane vesicles isolated from Cos-7 fibroblasts. We treated these membranes, which mainly originate from the trans-Golgi network and endosomes, with cyclodextrin and measured the effects on their equilibrium buoyant density, protein content, represented by the palmitoylated protein phosphatidylinositol 4-kinase type IIα, and cholesterol. Despite the reduction in mass stemming from cholesterol removal, the vesicles became denser, indicating a possible large volumetric decrease, and this was confirmed by measurements of hydrodynamic vesicle size. Subsequent mathematical analyses demonstrated that only half of this change in membrane size was attributable to cholesterol loss. Hence, the non-selective desorption properties of cyclodextrin are also involved in membrane size and density changes. These findings may have implications for preceding studies that interpreted cyclodextrin-induced changes to membrane biochemistry in the context of lipid raft disruption without taking into account our finding that cyclodextrin treatment also reduces membrane size.