Evaluation of a 27-gene inherited cancer panel across 630 consecutive patients referred for testing in a clinical diagnostic laboratory.

BACKGROUND: Extensive clinical and genetic heterogeneity of inherited cancers has allowed multi-gene panel testing to become an efficient means for identification of patients with an inherited predisposition to a broad spectrum of syndromic and nonsyndromic forms of cancer. This study reports our experience with a 27-gene inherited cancer panel on a cohort of 630 consecutive individuals referred for testing at our laboratory with the following objectives: 1. Determine the rates for positive cases and those with variants of uncertain clinical significance (VUS) relative to data published in the recent literature, 2. Examine heterogeneity among the constituent genes on the panel, and 3. Review test uptake in the cohort relative to other reports describing outcomes for expanded panel testing. METHODS: Clinical and genomic data were reviewed on 630 individuals tested on a panel of 27 genes selected on the basis of high (≥ 40%) or moderate to low (≤ 40%) lifetime risk of hereditary cancer. These patients were not enriched for adherence to the National Comprehensive Cancer Network (NCCN) criteria for Hereditary Breast and Ovarian Cancer (HBOC) or Lynch Syndrome (LS) and constitute a referral laboratory cohort. RESULTS: Sixty-five individuals with variants classified as pathogenic or likely pathogenic across 14 genes were identified for an overall positive rate of 10.3%. Although a family history of cancer constituted a major reason for referral, accounting for 84% of our cohort, excluding patients with a known familial variant did not have a significant impact on the observed positive rate (9% vs 10.3%). More than half (58%) of the pathogenic or likely pathogenic variants were observed in high or moderate to low risk genes on the panel, while only 42% occurred in classic HBOC or LS-associated genes. CONCLUSION: These results provide the actual percentage of family or personal history of cancer that can be attributed to pathogenic or likely pathogenic variants in one or more of the genes on our panel and corroborate the utility of multi-gene panels over sequential testing to identify individuals with an inherited predisposition to cancer.

BRCA Share: A Collection of Clinical BRCA Gene Variants.

As next-generation sequencing increases access to human genetic variation, the challenge of determining clinical significance of variants becomes ever more acute. Germline variants in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes can confer substantial lifetime risk of breast and ovarian cancer. Assessment of variant pathogenicity is a vital part of clinical genetic testing for these genes. A database of clinical observations of BRCA variants is a critical resource in that process. This article describes BRCA Share™, a database created by a unique international alliance of academic centers and commercial testing laboratories. By integrating the content of the Universal Mutation Database generated by the French Unicancer Genetic Group with the testing results of two large commercial laboratories, Quest Diagnostics and Laboratory Corporation of America (LabCorp), BRCA Share™ has assembled one of the largest publicly accessible collections of BRCA variants currently available. Although access is available to academic researchers without charge, commercial participants in the project are required to pay a support fee and contribute their data. The fees fund the ongoing curation effort, as well as planned experiments to functionally characterize variants of uncertain significance. BRCA Share™ databases can therefore be considered as models of successful data sharing between private companies and the academic world.

Exploring the landscape of pathogenic genetic variation in the ExAC population database: insights of relevance to variant classification.

PURPOSE: We evaluated the Exome Aggregation Consortium (ExAC) database as a control cohort to classify variants across a diverse set of genes spanning dominant and recessively inherited disorders. METHODS: The frequency of pathogenic variants in ExAC was compared with the estimated maximal pathogenic allele frequency (MPAF), based on the disease prevalence, penetrance, inheritance, allelic and locus heterogeneity of each gene. Additionally, the observed carrier frequency and the ethnicity-specific variant distribution were compared between ExAC and the published literature. RESULTS: The carrier frequency and ethnic distribution of pathogenic variants in ExAC were concordant with reported estimates. Of 871 pathogenic/likely pathogenic variants across 19 genes, only 3 exceeded the estimated MPAF. Eighty-four percent of variants with ExAC frequencies above the estimated MPAF were classified as "benign." Additionally, 20% of the cardiac and 19% of the Lynch syndrome gene variants originally classified as "VUS" occurred with ExAC frequencies above the estimated MPAF, making these suitable for reassessment. CONCLUSIONS: The ExAC database is a useful source for variant classification and is not overrepresented for pathogenic variants in the genes evaluated. However, the mutational spectrum, pseudogenes, genetic heterogeneity, and paucity of literature should be considered in deriving meaningful classifications using ExAC.Genet Med 18 8, 850-854.

Functional Assessment of Clubfoot Associated HOXA9, TPM1, and TPM2 Variants Suggests a Potential Gene Regulation Mechanism.

BACKGROUND: Isolated nonsyndromic clubfoot is a common birth defect affecting 135,000 newborns worldwide each year. Although treatment has improved, substantial long-term morbidity persists. Genetic causes have been implicated in family-based studies but the genetic changes have eluded identification. Previously, using a candidate gene approach in our family-based dataset, we identified associations between clubfoot and four single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) located in potential regulatory regions of genes involved in muscle development and patterning (HOXA9) and muscle function (TPM1 and TPM2) were identified. QUESTIONS/PURPOSES: Four SNPs, rs3801776/HOXA9, rs4075583/TPM1, rs2025126/TPM2, and rs2145925/TPM2, located in potential regulatory regions, were evaluated to determine whether they altered promoter activity. METHODS: Electrophoretic mobility shift assays were performed on these four SNPs to identify allele-specific DNA-protein interactions. SNPs showing differential banding patterns were assessed for effect on promoter activity by luciferase assay. Undifferentiated (for HOXA9) and differentiated (for TPM1 and TPM2) mouse cells were used in functional assays as a proxy for the in vivo developmental stage. RESULTS: Functional analyses showed that the ancestral alleles of rs3801776/HOXA9, rs4075583/TPM1, and rs2025126/TPM2 and the alternate allele of rs2145925/TPM2 created allele-specific nuclear protein interactions and caused higher promoter activity. Interestingly, while rs4075583/TPM1 showed an allele-specific nuclear protein interaction, an effect on promoter activity was observed only when rs4075583/TPM1 was expressed in the 1.7kb haplotype construct. CONCLUSION: Our results show that associated promoter variants in HOXA9, TPM1, and TPM2, alter promoter expression suggesting that they have a functional role. Moreover and importantly, we show that alterations in promoter activity may be observed only in the context of the genomic architecture. Therefore, future studies focusing on proteins binding to these regulatory SNPs may provide important key insights into gene regulation in clubfoot. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Identifying the genetic risk signature for clubfoot is important to provide accurate genetic counseling for at-risk families, for development of prevention programs and new treatments.

Variants in genes that encode muscle contractile proteins influence risk for isolated clubfoot.

Isolated clubfoot is a relatively common birth defect that affects approximately 4,000 newborns in the US each year. Calf muscles in the affected leg(s) are underdeveloped and remain small even after corrective treatment. This observation suggests that variants in genes that influence muscle development are priority candidate risk factors for clubfoot. This contention is further supported by the discovery that mutations in genes that encode components of the muscle contractile complex (MYH3, TPM2, TNNT3, TNNI2, and MYH8) cause congenital contractures, including clubfoot, in distal arthrogryposis (DA) syndromes. Interrogation of 15 genes encoding proteins that control myofiber contractility in a cohort of both non-Hispanic White (NHW) and Hispanic families, identified positive associations (P < 0.05) with SNPs in 12 genes; only 1 was identified in a family-based validation dataset. Six SNPs in TNNC2 deviated from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium in mothers in our NHW discovery dataset. Relative risk and likelihood ratio tests showed evidence for a maternal genotypic effect with TNNC2/rs383112 and an inherited/child genotypic effect with two SNPs, TNNC2/rs4629 and rs383112. Associations with multiple SNPs in TPM1 were identified in the NHW discovery (rs4075583, P = 0.01), family-based validation (rs1972041, P = 0.000074), and case-control validation (rs12148828, P = 0.04) datasets. Gene interactions were identified between multiple muscle contraction genes with many of the interactions involving at least one potential regulatory SNP. Collectively, our results suggest that variation in genes that encode contractile proteins of skeletal myofibers may play a role in the etiology of clubfoot.

Altered transmission of HOX and apoptotic SNPs identify a potential common pathway for clubfoot.

Clubfoot is a common birth defect that affects 135,000 newborns each year worldwide. It is characterized by equinus deformity of one or both feet and hypoplastic calf muscles. Despite numerous study approaches, the cause(s) remains poorly understood although a multifactorial etiology is generally accepted. We considered the HOXA and HOXD gene clusters and insulin-like growth factor binding protein 3 (IGFBP3) as candidate genes because of their important roles in limb and muscle morphogenesis. Twenty SNPs from the HOXA and HOXD gene clusters and 12 SNPs in IGFBP3 were genotyped in a sample composed of non-Hispanic white and Hispanic multiplex and simplex families (discovery samples) and a second sample of non-Hispanic white simplex trios (validation sample). Four SNPs (rs6668, rs2428431, rs3801776, and rs3779456) in the HOXA cluster demonstrated altered transmission in the discovery sample, but only rs3801776, located in the HOXA basal promoter region, showed altered transmission in both the discovery and validation samples (P = 0.004 and 0.028). Interestingly, HOXA9 is expressed in muscle during development. An SNP in IGFBP3, rs13223993, also showed altered transmission (P = 0.003) in the discovery sample. Gene-gene interactions were identified between variants in HOXA, HOXD, and IGFBP3 and with previously associated SNPs in mitochondrial-mediated apoptotic genes. The most significant interactions were found between CASP3 SNPS and variants in HOXA, HOXD, and IGFBP3. These results suggest a biologic model for clubfoot in which perturbation of HOX and apoptotic genes together affect muscle and limb development, which may cause the downstream failure of limb rotation into a plantar grade position.

Regulatory variant in FZD6 gene contributes to nonsyndromic cleft lip and palate in an African-American family.

Nonsyndromic cleft lip with or without cleft palate (NSCLP) is a common birth defect affecting 135,000 newborns worldwide each year. While a multifactorial etiology has been suggested as the cause, despite decades of research, the genetic underpinnings of NSCLP remain largely unexplained. In our previous genome-wide linkage study of a large NSCLP African-American family, we identified a candidate locus at 8q21.3-24.12 (LOD = 2.98). This region contained four genes, Frizzled-6 (FZD6), Matrilin-2 (MATN2), Odd-skipped related 2 (OSR2) and Solute Carrier Family 25, Member 32 (SLC25A32). FZD6 was located under the maximum linkage peak. In this study, we sequenced the coding and noncoding regions of these genes in two affected family members, and identified a rare variant in intron 1 of FZD6 (rs138557689; c.-153 + 432A>C). The variant C allele segregated with NSCLP in this family, through affected and unaffected individuals, and was found in one other NSCLP African-American family. Functional assays showed that this allele creates an allele-specific protein-binding site and decreases promoter activity. We also observed that loss and gain of fzd6 in zebrafish contributes to craniofacial anomalies. FZD6 regulates the WNT signaling pathway, which is involved in craniofacial development, including midfacial formation and upper labial fusion. We hypothesize, therefore, that alteration in FZD6 expression contributes to NSCLP in this family by perturbing the WNT signaling pathway.