Methods for activating and characterizing mechanically responsive polymers.

Mechanically responsive polymers harness mechanical energy to facilitate unique chemical transformations and bestow materials with force sensing (e.g., mechanochromism) or self-healing capabilities. A variety of solution- and solid-state techniques, covering a spectrum of forces and strain rates, can be used to activate mechanically responsive polymers. Moreover, many of these methods have been combined with optical spectroscopy or chemical labeling techniques to characterize the products formed via mechanical activation of appropriate precursors in situ. In this tutorial review, we discuss the methods and techniques that have been used to supply mechanical force to macromolecular systems, and highlight the advantages and challenges associated with each.

Molecular catch bonds and the anti-Hammond effect in polymer mechanochemistry.

While the field of polymer mechanochemistry has traditionally focused on the use of mechanical forces to accelerate chemical processes, theoretical considerations predict an underexplored alternative: the suppression of reactivity through mechanical perturbation. Here, we use electronic structure calculations to analyze the mechanical reactivity of six mechanophores, or chemical functionalities that respond to mechanical stress in a controlled manner. Our computational results indicate that appropriately directed tensile forces could attenuate (as opposed to facilitate) mechanochemical phenomena. Accompanying experimental studies supported the theoretical predictions and demonstrated that relatively simple computational models may be used to design new classes of mechanically responsive materials. In addition, our computational studies and theoretical considerations revealed the prevalence of the anti-Hammond (as opposed to Hammond) effect (i.e., the increased structural dissimilarity between the reactant and transition state upon lowering of the reaction barrier) in the mechanical activation of polyatomic molecules.

Mechanically facilitated retro [4+2] cycloadditions.

Poly(methyl acrylate)s (PMAs) of varying molecular weights were grown from a [4+2] cycloaddition adduct of maleimide with furan containing two polymerization initiators. Subjecting the corresponding PMA (>30 kDa) chains to ultrasound at 0 °C resulted in a retro [4+2] cycloaddition reaction, as observed by gel permeation chromatography (GPC) and UV-vis spectroscopy, as well as labeling of the liberated maleimide and furan moieties with appropriate chromophores featuring complementary functional groups. Similar results were obtained by sonicating analogous polymers that were grown from a thermally robust [4+2] cycloaddition adduct of maleimide with anthracene. The generation of anthracenyl species from these latter adducts allowed for the rate of the corresponding mechanically activated retro [4+2] cycloaddition reaction to be measured. No reduction in the number average molecular weight (M(n)) or liberation of the maleimide, furan, or anthracene moieties was observed (i) for polymers containing the cycloaddition adducts with M(n) < 20 kDa, (ii) for high molecular weight PMAs (M(n) > 60 kDa) featuring terminal cycloaddition adducts, or (iii) when the cycloaddition adducts were not covalently linked to a high molecular weight PMA. Collectively, these results support the notion that the aforementioned retro [4+2] cycloaddition processes were derived from a vectorially opposed mechanical force applied to adducts embedded within the polymer chains.

Mechanical activation of catalysts for C-C bond forming and anionic polymerization reactions from a single macromolecular reagent.

Coupling of pyridine-capped poly(methyl acrylate)s, PyP(M) (where M corresponds to the number average molecular weight in kDa), to the SCS-cyclometalated dipalladium complex [(1)(CH(3)CN)(2)] afforded organometallic polymers [(1)(PyP(M))(2)] with a concomitant doubling in molecular weight. Ultrasonication of solutions containing [(1)(PyP(M))(2)] effected the mechanical scission of a palladium-pyridine bond, where the liberated PyP(M) was trapped with excess HBF(4) as the corresponding pyridinium salt, harnessed to effect the stoichiometric deprotonation of a colorimetric indicator, or used to catalyze the anionic polymerization of α-trifluoromethyl-2,2,2-trifluoroethyl acrylate. The mechanically induced chain scission also unmasked a catalytically active palladium species which was used to facilitate carbon-carbon bond formation between benzyl cyanide and N-tosyl imines. Spectroscopic and macromolecular analyses as well as a series of control experiments demonstrated that the aforementioned structural changes were derived from mechanical forces that originated from ultrasound-induced dissociation of the polymer chains connected to the aforementioned Pd complexes.

Mechanical reconfiguration of stereoisomers.

Poly(methyl acrylate) of varying molecular weight was grown from the enantiopure ditopic initiator (R)- or (S)-1,1'-binaphthyl-2,2'-bis-(2-bromoisobutyrate). Subjecting CH(3)CN solutions of high-molecular-weight derivatives (M(N) > 25 kDa) to sonication at 0 degrees C resulted in >95% racemization after 24 h, as determined by circular dichroism; no appreciable racemization was observed in low-molecular-weight derivatives. Control experiments excluded the possibility of a thermal racemization mechanism.

A systematic investigation of factors influencing the decarboxylation of imidazolium carboxylates.

A series of 1,3-disubstituted-2-imidazolium carboxylates, an adduct of CO(2) and N-heterocyclic carbenes, were synthesized and characterized using single crystal X-ray, thermogravimetric, IR, and NMR analysis. The TGA analysis of the NHC-CO(2)'s shows that as steric bulk on the N-substituent increases, the ability of the NHC-CO(2) to decarboxylate increases. The comparison of NHC-CO(2)'s with and without methyls at the 4,5-position indicate that extra electron density in the imidazolium ring enhances the stability of an NHC-CO(2) thereby making it less prone to decarboxylation. Single crystal X-ray analysis shows that the torsional angle of the carboxylate group and the C-CO(2) bond length with respect to the imidazolium ring is dependent on the steric bulk of the N-substituent. Rotamers in the unit cell of a single crystal of I(t)BuPrCO(2) (2f) indicate that the C-CO(2) bond length increases as the N-substituents rotate toward the carboxylate moiety, which suggests that rotation of the N-substituents through the plane of the C-CO(2) bond may be involved in the bond breaking event to release CO(2).

Retraction: Homonuclear bond activation using a stable N,N'-diamidocarbene.

[This retracts the article DOI: 10.1039/C2SC20639K.].

Polymer Mechanochemistry: Force Enabled Transformations.

In this viewpoint, we highlight the ability of mechanical force to overcome the limitations associated with using thermal or photochemical stimuli to facilitate chemical transformations. Emphasis will be directed toward examples of new chemical reactions that are accessed through externally applied mechanical forces, as these are illustrative of the emerging concept of using polymer chemistry to drive the synthesis of small molecules. In parallel, we offer perspectives on the potential applications of polymer mechanochemistry in the development of novel synthetic strategies.

RETRACTED: Unclicking the click: mechanically facilitated 1,3-dipolar cycloreversions.

The specific targeting of covalent bonds in a local, anisotropic fashion using mechanical methods offers useful opportunities to direct chemical reactivity down otherwise prohibitive pathways. Here, we report that embedding the highly inert 1,2,3-triazole moiety (which is often prepared using the canonical "click" coupling of azides and alkynes) within a poly(methyl acrylate) chain renders it susceptible to ultrasound-induced cycloreversion, as confirmed by comprehensive spectroscopic and chemical analyses. Such reactivity offers the opportunity to develop triazoles as mechanically labile protecting groups or for use in readily accessible materials that respond to mechanical force.