Until It's a regulation It's not my fight: Complexities of a voluntary nonlead hunting ammunition program.

Wildlife and human health are at risk of lead exposure from spent hunting ammunition. Lead exposure persists for bald eagles due to bullet fragments in game animal gut piles and unretrieved carcasses, and is also a human health risk when wild game is procured using lead ammunition. Programs encouraging the voluntary use of nonlead ammunition have become a popular approach mitigating these effects. This study explored attitudes and experiences of United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) staff implementing an outreach program encouraging deer hunters to voluntary use nonlead ammunition on 54 National Wildlife Refuges (NWRs) in the Upper Midwest, U.S. to understand factors affecting program implementation. We conducted 29 semi-structured interviews of USFWS staff along with 60 responses from an open-ended survey question. Twelve themes emerged from the data and were grouped into three broad categories: (1) challenges of dealing with complex issues, (2) importance of messengers and messages, and (3) resistance from staff. Challenges of dealing with complex issues included administrative restraint and uncertainty, scope and scale of program, human health not an agency responsibility, contextual political influences, and public-private collaborations. Importance of messengers and messages included the importance of experience, and salience of human health risk. Finally, resistance from staff included skepticism of the science and motives behind the program, competing priorities for refuge staff, differing perceptions of regulatory and voluntary approaches, cost and availability of nonlead ammunition, and disregard by some about lead ammunition and human health risks. Staff identified numerous challenges implementing the program, many of which were external factors beyond the control of the participants. Understanding the factors affecting program implementation may help guide future efforts encouraging the voluntary use of nonlead ammunition.

"We actually care and we want to make the parks better": A qualitative study of youth experiences and perceptions after conducting park audits.

This study explored youths' experiences and perceptions about community engagement as a result of participating in a community-based data collection project using paper and mobile technology park environmental audit tools. In July 2014, youth (ages 11-18, n=50) were recruited to participate in nine focus groups after auditing two parks each using paper, electronic, or both versions of the Community Park Audit Tool in Greenville County, SC. The focus groups explored the youths' experiences participating in the project, changes as a result of participation, suggested uses of park audit data collected, and who should use the tools. Four themes emerged related to youths' project participation experiences: two positive (fun and new experiences) and two negative (uncomfortable/unsafe and travel issues). Changes described as a result of participating in the project fell into four themes: increased awareness, motivation for further action, physical activity benefits, and no change. Additionally, youth had numerous suggestions for utilizing the data collected that were coded into six themes: maintenance & aesthetics, feature/amenity addition, online park information, park rating/review system, fundraising, and organizing community projects. Finally, six themes emerged regarding who the youth felt could use the tools: frequent park visitors, community groups/organizations, parks and recreation professionals, adults, youth, and everyone. This study revealed a wealth of information about youth experiences conducting park audits for community health promotion. Understanding youth attitudes and preferences can help advance youth empowerment and civic engagement efforts to promote individual and community health.

A longitudinal examination of improved access on park use and physical activity in a low-income and majority African American neighborhood park.

This study sought to evaluate the impact of street crossing infrastructure modifications on park use and park-based physical activity in a low-income and African American community. A five-lane major highway created an access barrier between low-income housing units and the local neighborhood park in Columbia, Missouri. The installation of a signalized pedestrian crosswalk provided an opportunity to conduct a natural experiment to examine the effect of improved safe access upon community active living behaviors. Direct observation using SOPARC was collected prior to the crosswalk instillation in June 2012, after the crosswalk installation in June 2013 and again as a follow up in June 2014 during the same two-week period to assess changes in total park use and total energy expenditure by age, gender and race/ethnicity. Analysis of covariance models, controlling for temperature examined changes in total counts and total energy expenditure using pairwise Sidak post-hoc comparisons. Total park use increased from 2012 (n=2080) to 2013 (n=2275) and remained constant in 2014 (n=2276). However, despite increases in safe access and overall park use, there was a significant decrease in total energy expenditure following the installation of the crosswalk that was sustained in 2014. This study shows that increasing safe access to parks primarily positively influences park use but not park-based physical activity. While improved safe access is encouraging greater park use, there is a need for future research to examine additional factors such as social support, programming and environmental changes to engage community members in park-based physical activity.

ParkIndex: Development of a standardized metric of park access for research and planning.

OBJECTIVE: A lack of comprehensive and standardized metrics for measuring park exposure limits park-related research and health promotion efforts. This study aimed to develop and demonstrate an empirically-derived and spatially-represented index of park access (ParkIndex) that would allow researchers, planners, and citizens to evaluate the potential for park use for a given area. METHODS: Data used for developing ParkIndex were collected in 2010 in Kansas City, Missouri (KCMO). Adult study participants (n=891) reported whether they used a park within the past month, and all parks in KCMO were mapped and audited using ArcGIS 9.3 and the Community Park Audit Tool. Four park summary variables - distance to nearest park, and the number of parks, amount of park space, and average park quality index within 1mile were analyzed in relation to park use using logistic regression. Coefficients for significant park summary variables were used to create a raster surface (ParkIndex) representing the probability of park use for all 100m×100m cells in KCMO. RESULTS: Two park summary variables were positively associated with park use - the number of parks and the average park quality index within 1 mile. The ParkIndex probability of park use across all cells in KCMO ranged from 17 to 77 out of 100. CONCLUSION: ParkIndex represents a standardized metric of park access that combines elements of both park availability and quality, which was developed empirically and can be represented spatially. This tool has both practical and conceptual significance for researchers and professionals in diverse disciplines.

The Impact of a Signalized Crosswalk on Traffic Speed and Street-Crossing Behaviors of Residents in an Underserved Neighborhood.

Infrastructure improvements such as pedestrian crosswalks that calm traffic and increase access to physical activity opportunities could alleviate important barriers to active living in underserved communities with outdated built environments. The purpose of this study was to explore how the built environment influences street-crossing behaviors and traffic speeds in a low-income neighborhood with barriers to active living in Columbia, Missouri. In 2013, a signalized pedestrian crosswalk and 400-ft-long median was constructed along a busy 5-lane, high-speed arterial highway linking low-income housing with a park and downtown areas. Data collection occurred prior to June 2012, and after June 2013, completion of the project at the intervention site and control site. Direct observation of street-crossing behaviors was performed at designated intersections/crosswalks or non-designated crossing points. Traffic volume and speed were captured using embedded magnetic traffic detectors. At the intervention site, designated crossings increased at the new crosswalk (p < 0.001), but not at non-designated crossings (p = 0.52) or designated crossings at intersections (p = 0.41). At the control site, there was no change in designated crossings (p = 0.94) or non-designated crossings (p = 0.79). Motor vehicles traveling above the speed limit of 35 mph decreased from 62,056 (46 %) to 46,256 (35 %) (p < 0.001) at the intervention site and increased from 57,891 (49 %) to 65,725 (59 %) (p < 0.001) at the control site. The installation of a signalized crosswalk facilitated an increase in safe street crossings and calmed traffic volume and speed in an underserved neighborhood. We believe these findings have significant public health implications that could be critical to advocacy efforts to improve infrastructure projects in similar communities.

Association of outdoor recreation availability with physical activity and weight status in Minnesota youth.

OBJECTIVE: Examine macro-level associations of youth physical activity (PA) and weight status with availability of outdoor recreation resources (i.e., parkland, forestland, natural preserves, nonmotorized trails, and motorized trails) across counties in Minnesota. METHODS: Hierarchical regression models examined if availability of recreation resources significantly improved prediction of PA and weight status of 9th and 12th grade boys and girls (2010) across Minnesota counties. RESULTS: The inclusion of county-level densities of recreational land variables did not produce a significant increase in R(2) for any of the models predicting 9th grade outcomes, yet county-level densities of recreational trails did significantly increase R(2) for both levels of PA and weight status. In contrast, the inclusion of recreational trails did not produce any significant increases in R(2) for 12th grade outcomes, although the inclusion of recreational land did significantly increase the R(2) for 12th grade girls achieving 30min of PA 5 or more days of the week. CONCLUSION: Findings indicate that various recreational land and trail types may have different impacts on and associations with PA and health outcomes. As such, it is important that future studies focus not only on parks, but also on other types of recreational lands and trails as well.

Point-of-decision prompts for increasing park-based physical activity: a crowdsource analysis.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the potential efficacy of using point-of-decision prompts to influence intentions to be active in a park setting. METHODS: In June 2013, participants from across the U.S. (n=250) completed an online experiment using Amazon's Mechanical Turk and Survey Monkey. Participants were randomly exposed to a park photo containing a persuasive, theoretically based message in the form of a sign (treatment) or an identical photo with no sign (control). Differences in intentions to engage in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity within the park were examined between the two conditions for multiple gender, age, and race groups. RESULTS: Participants who were exposed to the park photo with the sign reported significantly greater intentions to be active than those who viewed the photo without a sign. This effect was stronger for women and largely null for men, but no differences were observed across age or race groups. CONCLUSION: Point-of-decision prompts are a relatively inexpensive, simple, sustainable, and scalable strategy for evoking behavior change in parks and further testing of diverse messages in actual park settings is warranted.

Perceptions of neighborhood park quality: associations with physical activity and body mass index.

BACKGROUND: Parks are important resources for physical activity (PA), yet few studies have examined how perceptions of park characteristics relate to PA and health. PURPOSE: This study investigated associations between perceptions of neighborhood park quality and overall moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA), park-based PA, and body mass index (BMI). METHODS: Data were collected via questionnaire from 893 households in Kansas City, Missouri. RESULTS: The newly developed neighborhood park quality scale demonstrated good test-retest and internal reliability. Residents' perceptions of neighborhood park quality were related to PA and health outcomes. Perceiving parks as a benefit was positively related to overall MVPA and park-based PA and negatively related to BMI. Perceptions of well-used parks were positively related to BMI, while perceived cleanliness was negatively related to park-based PA. CONCLUSIONS: Better measuring and understanding how perceptions of local parks are associated with PA and health can improve appreciation of how parks facilitate active living.

Exploring the distribution of park availability, features, and quality across Kansas City, Missouri by income and race/ethnicity: an environmental justice investigation.

BACKGROUND: Parks are key community assets for physical activity, but some evidence suggests these resources are not equitably distributed. PURPOSE: This study examined disparities by income and race/ethnicity in the availability, features, and quality of parks across Kansas City, Missouri. METHODS: All parks and census tracts (CTs) were mapped using geographical information systems, and park features and quality were determined via audits. Multivariate analyses of covariance analyzed differences in park availability, features, and quality across low-, medium-, and high-income and race/ethnicity CT tertiles. RESULTS: Low-income CTs contained significantly more parks, but also had fewer parks with playgrounds and more quality concerns per park. High minority CTs had more parks with basketball courts, but fewer parks with trails. Medium-income CTs contained more aesthetic features per park. CONCLUSIONS: Future research should examine policies that contribute to and that might rectify disparities in park features and quality, especially in low-income and high minority areas.

Demographic variations in observed energy expenditure across park activity areas.

OBJECTIVE: Parks are important physical activity (PA) settings, but few studies have examined PA differences between park areas according to multiple user demographic characteristics. This study explored variations in adult/senior and child/teen PA intensity across park settings by gender, age, and race/ethnicity. METHODS: In July-August 2009, the System for Observing Play and Recreation in Communities (SOPARC) was used in four parks in Kansas City, Missouri to record park users' PA behavior within specific park areas. A total of 8855 observations were recorded. ANCOVAs compared mean energy expenditure (EE) for various demographic groups across the five most-used park target areas for adults/seniors and children/teens. RESULTS: Among adults/seniors, all sub-samples exhibited higher EE on paved trails (0.086-0.093 kcal/kg/min) and tennis courts (0.086-0.089 kcal/kg/min), than in open spaces, playgrounds, or picnic shelters. Among children/teens, the child, White, and all child/teen sub-samples showed greater EE on playgrounds (0.088-0.089 kcal/kg/min) than in picnic shelters. CONCLUSION: Park planning and design efforts should consider environmental and programming initiatives to increase intergenerational PA levels within park areas such as playgrounds, open spaces, and picnic shelters.

The Electronic Community Park Audit Tool (eCPAT): Exploring the Use of Mobile Technology for Youth Empowerment and Advocacy for Healthy Community Policy, Systems, and Environmental Change.

Empowering and engaging youth in advocacy and participatory action research (PAR) for healthy community environments is an emerging approach to reducing the childhood obesity epidemic. Technology is a promising strategy for engaging youth in such efforts. The Community Park Audit Tool (CPAT) is user-friendly tool for evaluating the ability of parks to promote youth physical activity. Recently an electronic version of the tool (eCPAT) was developed and validated. The purpose of this study was to explore the use of eCPAT mobile technology on youth empowerment and advocacy. This study examined tool usability, youths' technology access, use, and readiness for PAR efforts, effectiveness of mobile technology on youth empowerment and advocacy, interaction effects between tool format and regular technology use, and tool format preferences. Youth ages 11-18 years were recruited and randomized into one of three study conditions: Control (no audit), paper (CPAT), and mobile technology (eCPAT). Intervention youth completed two park audits using assigned format. A subsample of youth in the Control group completed both CPAT and eCPAT audits for comparison. Independent samples t-tests and MANCOVAs explored differences in post-project levels of tool usability and empowerment and advocacy scores between groups. Multivariate linear regression analysis explored the interaction between Control, Paper, or eCPAT group membership and mean technology use in predicting empowerment and advocacy. Youth (n = 124) completed pre and post surveys. The majority of youth had access to technology (smartphone 77.4%, tablet/iPad 67.7%). Youth used mobile technology at least once a day to use apps (M = 7.8, SD = 3.2), browse the web (M = 6.3, SD = 3.3), and search for information (M = 6.3, SD = 3.5). Youth were also ready and willing to use technology for PAR (M = 3.42-3.59). No main or interaction effects were found for post-project levels of youth empowerment or advocacy. However, the eCPAT tool had high usability scores, was better liked, and was preferred by youth over paper-pencil methods. Mobile technologies are ubiquitous and a preferred strategy among youth for engagement in community change. Future studies should explore mobile technology as a potential strategy for engaging youth in ongoing PAR efforts to achieve successful engagement and advocacy in community healthy environmental change.

Park availability and physical activity, TV time, and overweight and obesity among women: Findings from Australia and the United States.

This study examined relationships between three measures of park availability and self-reported physical activity (PA), television viewing (TV) time, and overweight/obesity among women from Australia and the United States. Having more parks near home was the only measure of park availability associated with an outcome. Australian women (n=1848) with more parks near home had higher odds of meeting PA recommendations and lower odds of being overweight/obese. In the US sample (n=489), women with more parks near home had lower odds of watching >4h TV per day. A greater number of parks near home was associated with lower BMI among both Australian and US women. Evidence across diverse contexts provides support to improve park availability to promote PA and other health behaviors.

Variations in observed park physical activity intensity level by gender, race, and age: individual and joint effects.

BACKGROUND: Parks are important settings for physical activity (PA), but few studies have documented the actual behaviors of park users. The purpose of this study was to examine the individual and joint effects of various park user demographic characteristics on observed PA intensity levels. METHODS: Four parks were observed using the System for Observing Play and Recreation in Communities. Observers recorded the age group, gender, race, and intensity level of all park users in 83 activity areas over two weekends at each park. Logistic regression examined whether male/White, female/White, and male/non-White users were more likely than female/non-White users to be observed engaging in moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA) rather than sedentary activity across 4 age groups. RESULTS: In total, 8612 users were observed during the study. In the child age group, male/White users were significantly more likely to be observed in MVPA than female/non-White users. For teens, female/White and male/White users were less likely to engage in MVPA. For both adults and seniors, female/White and male/White users were more likely to be observed in MVPA. CONCLUSION: Observations revealed significant differences in intensity levels across gender, age, and race groups. Future interventions should emphasize park design that promotes increased MVPA among diverse groups.

Parks and health: differences in constraints and negotiation strategies for park-based leisure time physical activity by stage of change.

BACKGROUND: Public parks are increasingly recognized as important places that facilitate physical activity. Despite the presence of parks, constraints to recreation and physical activity at parks exist. As the health benefits identified with physical activity require long-term and regular activity, it is important to examine factors pertaining to physical activity participation beyond initiation. This study explored differences in reported constraints to park based physical activity and negotiation strategies by physical activity stage of change. METHODS: Data were collected among visitors to one Minnesota state park via onsite and follow-up questionnaires. RESULTS: The average visitor had a healthier weight than the average U.S. and Minnesota adult and the majority of visitors were meeting the physical activity recommendations (86.4%). Respondents in the inactive/insufficient stages were more constrained and used fewer negotiation strategies than respondents in the maintenance stage. CONCLUSIONS: Results both support and expand on previous research findings. Specifically, this study supports research which indicates the adoption and maintenance of physical activity are influenced by different individual, social and environmental factors, and expands the research base by examining constraints and negotiation at different physical activity stages in a park setting. Implications of these findings provide directions for future stage-based intervention efforts.