Mutations altering acetylated residues in the CTD of HIV-1 integrase cause defects in proviral transcription at early times after integration of viral DNA.

The central function of the retroviral integrase protein (IN) is to catalyze the integration of viral DNA into the host genome to form the provirus. The IN protein has also been reported to play a role in a number of other processes throughout the retroviral life cycle such as reverse transcription, nuclear import and particle morphogenesis. Studies have shown that HIV-1 IN is subject to multiple post-translational modifications (PTMs) including acetylation, phosphorylation and SUMOylation. However, the importance of these modifications during infection has been contentious. In this study we attempt to clarify the role of acetylation of HIV-1 IN during the retroviral life cycle. We show that conservative mutation of the known acetylated lysine residues has only a modest effect on reverse transcription and proviral integration efficiency in vivo. However, we observe a large defect in successful expression of proviral genes at early times after infection by an acetylation-deficient IN mutant that cannot be explained by delayed integration dynamics. We demonstrate that the difference between the expression of proviruses integrated by an acetylation mutant and WT IN is likely not due to altered integration site distribution but rather directly due to a lower rate of transcription. Further, the effect of the IN mutation on proviral gene expression is independent of the Tat protein or the LTR promoter. At early times after integration when the transcription defect is observed, the LTRs of proviruses integrated by the mutant IN have altered histone modifications as well as reduced IN protein occupancy. Over time as the transcription defect in the mutant virus diminishes, histone modifications on the WT and mutant proviral LTRs reach comparable levels. These results highlight an unexpected role for the IN protein in regulating proviral transcription at early times post-integration.

Selection for avian leukosis virus integration sites determines the clonal progression of B-cell lymphomas.

Avian leukosis virus (ALV) is a simple retrovirus that causes a wide range of tumors in chickens, the most common of which are B-cell lymphomas. The viral genome integrates into the host genome and uses its strong promoter and enhancer sequences to alter the expression of nearby genes, frequently inducing tumors. In this study, we compare the preferences for ALV integration sites in cultured cells and in tumors, by analysis of over 87,000 unique integration sites. In tissue culture we observed integration was relatively random with slight preferences for genes, transcription start sites and CpG islands. We also observed a preference for integrations in or near expressed and spliced genes. The integration pattern in cultured cells changed over the course of selection for oncogenic characteristics in tumors. In comparison to tissue culture, ALV integrations are more highly selected for proximity to transcription start sites in tumors. There is also a significant selection of ALV integrations away from CpG islands in the highly clonally expanded cells in tumors. Additionally, we utilized a high throughput method to quantify the magnitude of clonality in different stages of tumorigenesis. An ALV-induced tumor carries between 700 and 3000 unique integrations, with an average of 2.3 to 4 copies of proviral DNA per infected cell. We observed increasing tumor clonality during progression of B-cell lymphomas and identified gene players (especially TERT and MYB) and biological processes involved in tumor progression.

The FACT Complex Promotes Avian Leukosis Virus DNA Integration.

All retroviruses need to integrate a DNA copy of their genome into the host chromatin. Cellular proteins regulating and targeting lentiviral and gammaretroviral integration in infected cells have been discovered, but the factors that mediate alpharetroviral avian leukosis virus (ALV) integration are unknown. In this study, we have identified the FACT protein complex, which consists of SSRP1 and Spt16, as a principal cellular binding partner of ALV integrase (IN). Biochemical experiments with purified recombinant proteins show that SSRP1 and Spt16 are able to individually bind ALV IN, but only the FACT complex effectively stimulates ALV integration activity in vitro Likewise, in infected cells, the FACT complex promotes ALV integration activity, with proviral integration frequency varying directly with cellular expression levels of the FACT complex. An increase in 2-long-terminal-repeat (2-LTR) circles in the depleted FACT complex cell line indicates that this complex regulates the ALV life cycle at the level of integration. This regulation is shown to be specific to ALV, as disruption of the FACT complex did not inhibit either lentiviral or gammaretroviral integration in infected cells.IMPORTANCE The majority of human gene therapy approaches utilize HIV-1- or murine leukemia virus (MLV)-based vectors, which preferentially integrate near genes and regulatory regions; thus, insertional mutagenesis is a substantial risk. In contrast, ALV integrates more randomly throughout the genome, which decreases the risks of deleterious integration. Understanding how ALV integration is regulated could facilitate the development of ALV-based vectors for use in human gene therapy. Here we show that the FACT complex directly binds and regulates ALV integration efficiency in vitro and in infected cells.

Avian Leukosis Virus Activation of an Antisense RNA Upstream of TERT in B-Cell Lymphomas.

UNLABELLED: Avian leukosis virus (ALV) induces tumors by integrating its proviral DNA into the chicken genome and altering the expression of nearby genes via strong promoter and enhancer elements. Viral integration sites that contribute to oncogenesis are selected in tumor cells. Deep-sequencing analysis of B-cell lymphoma DNA confirmed that the telomerase reverse transcriptase (TERT) gene promoter is a common ALV integration target. Twenty-six unique proviral integration sites were mapped between 46 and 3,552 nucleotides (nt) upstream of the TERT transcription start site, predominantly in the opposite transcriptional orientation to TERT Transcriptome-sequencing (RNA-seq) analysis of normal bursa revealed a transcribed region upstream of TERT in the opposite orientation, suggesting the TERT promoter is bidirectional. This transcript appears to be an uncharacterized antisense RNA. We have previously shown that TERT expression is upregulated in tumors with integrations in the TERT promoter region. We now report that the viral promoter drives the expression of a chimeric transcript containing viral sequences spliced to exons 4 through 7 of this antisense RNA. Clonal expansion of cells with ALV integrations driving overexpression of the TERT antisense RNA suggest it may have a role in tumorigenesis. IMPORTANCE: The data suggest that ALV integrations in the TERT promoter region drive the overexpression of a novel antisense RNA and contribute to the development of lymphomas.

A point mutation in HIV-1 integrase redirects proviral integration into centromeric repeats.

Retroviruses utilize the viral integrase (IN) protein to integrate a DNA copy of their genome into host chromosomal DNA. HIV-1 integration sites are highly biased towards actively transcribed genes, likely mediated by binding of the IN protein to specific host factors, particularly LEDGF, located at these gene regions. We here report a substantial redirection of integration site distribution induced by a single point mutation in HIV-1 IN. Viruses carrying the K258R IN mutation exhibit a high frequency of integrations into centromeric alpha satellite repeat sequences, as assessed by deep sequencing, a more than 10-fold increase over wild-type. Quantitative PCR and in situ immunofluorescence assays confirm this bias of the K258R mutant virus for integration into centromeric DNA. Immunoprecipitation studies identify host factors binding to IN that may account for the observed bias for integration into centromeres. Centromeric integration events are known to be enriched in the latent reservoir of infected memory T cells, as well as in elite controllers who limit viral replication without intervention. The K258R point mutation in HIV-1 IN is also present in databases of latent proviruses found in patients, and may reflect an unappreciated aspect of the establishment of viral latency.

m5C Goes Viral.

In this issue of Cell Host & Microbe, Courtney et al. (2019a) find that HIV-1 genomic RNA has much more m5C than cellular mRNA. Deleting the m5C "writer" NSUN2 decreases HIV-1 m5C levels, promotes translation of the HIV-1 5' gag gene, and alters splicing at the A2 site.

Integration of ALV into CTDSPL and CTDSPL2 genes in B-cell lymphomas promotes cell immortalization, migration and survival.

Avian leukosis virus induces tumors in chickens by integrating into the genome and altering expression of nearby genes. Thus, ALV can be used as an insertional mutagenesis tool to identify novel genes involved in tumorigenesis. Deep sequencing analysis of viral integration sites has identified CTDSPL and CTDSPL2 as common integration sites in ALV-induced B-cell lymphomas, suggesting a potential role in driving oncogenesis. We show that in tumors with integrations in these genes, the viral promoter is driving the expression of a truncated fusion transcript. Overexpression in cultured chick embryo fibroblasts reveals that CTDSPL and CTDSPL2 have oncogenic properties, including promoting cell migration. We also show that CTDSPL2 has a previously uncharacterized role in protecting cells from apoptosis induced by oxidative stress. Further, the truncated viral fusion transcripts of both CTDSPL and CTDSPL2 promote immortalization in primary cell culture.

A Novel Long Non-Coding RNA in the hTERT Promoter Region Regulates hTERT Expression.

A novel antisense transcript was identified in the human telomerase reverse transcriptase (hTERT) promoter region, suggesting that the hTERT promoter is bidirectional. This transcript, named hTERT antisense promoter-associated (hTAPAS) RNA, is a 1.6 kb long non-coding RNA. hTAPAS transcription is initiated 167 nucleotides upstream of the hTERT transcription start site and is present in both the nucleus and the cytoplasm. Surprisingly, we observed that a large fraction of the hTERT polyadenylated RNA is localized in the nucleus, suggesting this might be an additional means of regulating the cellular abundance of hTERT protein. Both hTAPAS and hTERT are expressed in immortalized B-cells and human embryonic stem cells but are not detected in normal somatic cells. hTAPAS expression inversely correlates with hTERT expression in different types of cancer samples. Moreover, hTAPAS expression is not promoted by an hTERT promoter mutation (-124 C>T). Antisense-oligonucleotide mediated knockdown of hTAPAS results in an increase in hTERT expression. Conversely, ectopic overexpression of hTAPAS down regulates hTERT expression, suggesting a negative role in hTERT gene regulation. These observations provide insights into hTAPAS as a novel player that negatively regulates hTERT expression and may be involved in telomere length homeostasis.