Effects of styrene monomer on a mouse model of atopic dermatitis.

Aim: Styrene monomer (SM) is a basic chemical used as a raw material for polystyrene and unsaturated polyester resins and in the production of synthetic resins, synthetic rubbers, paints, and adhesives. To date, it is unclear whether SM is associated with the aggravation of atopic dermatitis. The aim was to investigate the effects of SM on atopic dermatitis-like skin lesions induced by mite allergen in NC/Nga mice.Methods: Male mice were injected intradermally with mite allergen on their right ears. In the presence of an allergen, SM (3.5 or 350 µg/animal/week) was administered by intraperitoneal injection. We evaluated clinical scores, ear thickening, histologic findings, and the protein expressions of cytokines and chemokines.Results: Macroscopic and microscopic examinations demonstrated that exposure to SM at a dose of 3.5 µg caused an exacerbation of atopic dermatitis-like skin lesions related to mite allergen. These changes were consistent with the level of histamine in the ear tissue as an overall trend. In contrast, 350-µg SM did not show significant enhancement effects.Conclusion: These results indicate that SM exacerbated atopic dermatitis-like skin lesions at hundred-fold lower levels than the level that causes no observed adverse effects as determined by histologic changes in rodent livers. SM could be at least partly responsible for the recent increase in atopic dermatitis.Impact statementStyrene monomer (SM) is classified as an International Agency for Research on Cancer group 2B carcinogen and includes neurotoxicity and respiratory disorders. However, the effects of SM as a chemical substance on existing allergic pathophysiology have not been elucidated yet. This study demonstrated that SM exacerbated murine atopic dermatitis-like skin lesions at hundred-fold lower levels than the level that causes no observed adverse effects as determined by histologic changes in rodent livers, which was concomitant with the local level of histamine. These data hasten a need for comprehensive research to clarify the chemical pollutants' effects of doses much lower than NOAEL on vulnerable pathophysiologies such as allergy/atopy.

Toxicological effects of Tris (1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate exposure in adult male rats differ depending on the history of exposure in the neonatal period.

There is increasing concern about multiple high concentration exposure to toxins in disaster and emergency situations. However, conventional toxicology testing methods may not adequately address these situations. Thus, we assessed whether the toxic effects of exposure in the adulthood differ depending on the presence or absence of neonatal exposure to Tris (1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TDCIPP) in male rats to investigate the effects of exposure history of chemicals. In the neonatal stage [postnatal days (PNDs) 1-7], animals were treated with either sesame oil (5 ml/kg/day) as a control or TDCIPP (250 mg/kg/day) dissolved in sesame oil. In adulthood (PND 101-107), animals were treated with either sesame oil (5 ml/kg/day) or TDCIPP (650 mg/kg/day). One day after the final administration, dissection was performed, and body and organ weight, hematology, blood biochemistry, and histopathology were examined. The results demonstrated that the toxic effects of TDCIPP exposure in adulthood on adrenal gland size, serum iron content, and unsaturated iron binding capacity were enhanced by TDCIPP exposure in the neonatal stage. From these findings, it was indicated that the toxic effects of TDCIPP exposure in the adult stage are affected by pediatric exposure. These results suggest that the toxic effects of high-dose and long-term unsteady exposure to chemicals in large-scale disasters may change based on the exposure history of chemicals.

Effects of Oral Exposure to Low-Dose Bisphenol S on Allergic Asthma in Mice.

Bisphenol S (BPS) is increasingly being used as an alternative for bisphenol A; however, its health effects remain unclear. We investigated the effects of oral exposure to low-dose BPS on allergic asthma. C3H/HeJ male mice were intratracheally administered with allergen (ovalbumin (OVA), 1 µg/animal) every 2 weeks from 6 to 11 weeks old. BPS was ingested by drinking water at doses equivalent to 0.04, 0.4, and 4 µg/kg/day. We then examined pulmonary inflammation, airway hyperresponsiveness, serum OVA-specific immunoglobulin (Ig) levels, Th2 cytokine/chemokine production, and mediastinal lymph node (MLN) cell activities. Compared with OVA alone, moderate-dose BPS (BPS-M) with OVA significantly enhanced pulmonary inflammation, airway hyperresponsiveness, and OVA-specific IgE and IgG1. Furthermore, interleukin (IL)-5, IL-13, IL-33, and CCL11/Eotaxin protein levels in the lungs increased. Conversely, these allergic responses were reduced in the high-dose BPS+OVA group. In MLN cells, BPS-M with OVA increased the total cell count and activated antigen-presenting cells including conventional dendritic cell subset (cDC2). After OVA restimulation, cell proliferation and Th2 cytokine production (IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13) in the culture supernatant also increased. Therefore, oral exposure to low-dose BPS may exacerbate allergic asthmatic responses by enhancing Th2-polarized responses and activating the MLN cells.

Dietary Exposure to Flame Retardant Tris (2-Butoxyethyl) Phosphate Altered Neurobehavior and Neuroinflammatory Responses in a Mouse Model of Allergic Asthma.

Tris (2-butoxyethyl) phosphate (TBEP) is an organophosphate flame retardant and used as a plasticizer in various household products such as plastics, floor polish, varnish, textiles, furniture, and electronic equipment. However, little is known about the effects of TBEP on the brain and behavior. We aimed to examine the effects of dietary exposure of TBEP on memory functions, their-related genes, and inflammatory molecular markers in the brain of allergic asthmatic mouse models. C3H/HeJSlc male mice were given diet containing TBEP (0.02 (TBEP-L), 0.2 (TBEP-M), or 2 (TBEP-H) µg/kg/day) and ovalbumin (OVA) intratracheally every other week from 5 to 11 weeks old. A novel object recognition test was conducted in each mouse at 11 weeks old. The hippocampi were collected to detect neurological, glia, and immunological molecular markers using the real-time RT-PCR method and immunohistochemical analyses. Mast cells and microglia were examined by toluidine blue staining and ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule (Iba)-1 immunoreactivity, respectively. Impaired discrimination ability was observed in TBEP-H-exposed mice with or without allergen. The mRNA expression levels of N-methyl-D aspartate receptor subunits Nr1 and Nr2b, inflammatory molecular markers tumor necrosis factor-α oxidative stress marker heme oxygenase 1, microglia marker Iba1, and astrocyte marker glial fibrillary acidic protein were significantly increased in TBEP-H-exposed mice with or without allergen. Microglia and mast cells activation were remarkable in TBEP-H-exposed allergic asthmatic mice. Our results indicate that chronic exposure to TBEP with or without allergen impaired object recognition ability accompanied with alteration of molecular expression of neuronal and glial markers and inflammatory markers in the hippocampus of mice. Neuron-glia-mast cells interaction may play a role in TBEP-induced neurobehavioral toxicity.

Dietary exposure to bisphenol A affects memory function and neuroimmune biomarkers in allergic asthmatic mice.

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a raw material of polycarbonate and epoxy resin. It is used for various household electrical appliances, electronic equipment, office automation equipment, medical equipment, mobile phones, paints for automobiles, internal surface coating of cans, and adhesives for civil engineering and construction. BPA is a well-known endocrine-disrupting chemical, and it was reported that BPA has an adverse effect on the nervous and immune systems. However, BPA-induced memory impairment and changes in neuroimmune biomarkers in the allergic asthmatic subject are not known yet. We aim to investigate the dietary exposure effect of BPA on brain function and biomarkers using allergic an asthmatic mouse model. Five-week-old male C3H/HeJSlc mice were fed two doses of BPA [0.901, 9.01 µg/kg/day] contained chow diet from 5 to 11 weeks old and ovalbumin (OVA) was given by intratracheal instillation every 2 weeks. Memory function was determined by a novel object recognition test. Genes related to memory and immune markers in the hippocampus were investigated with the real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) method. In this study, impaired novel object recognition occurred in BPA-exposed mice in the presence of an allergen. Moreover, upregulation of expression level of neuroimmune biomarkers such as N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor, tumor necrosis factor-α, ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule-1, cyclooxygenase-2, and heme oxygenase-1 in the hippocampus was observed in BPA-exposed allergic asthmatic mice. These findings show that BPA exposure can induce neuroinflammation and which triggers impairment of memory function in mice with allergic asthma. Our study indicated that dietary exposure to BPA may affect higher brain functions by modulating neuroimmune biomarkers in allergic asthmatic subjects.

Toxicokinetics of methylmercury in diabetic KK-Ay mice and C57BL/6 mice.

We compared the toxicokinetics of methylmercury (MeHg) in KK-Ay type 2 diabetic mice and C57BL/6J mice to evaluate how metabolic changes associated with diabetes affect MeHg toxicokinetics. A single dose of MeHg (0.2, 1, or 5 mg mercury/kg) was administered orally to 12-week-old KK-Ay and C57BL/6J male mice. Total mercury concentrations in plasma, blood cells, whole blood, and tissues (brain, kidneys, liver, and pancreas) were measured after 4, 7, 11, and 14 days. The volume of distribution/bioavailability and the elimination rate constant per day were higher in KK-Ay mice, while the terminal elimination half-life was lower in almost all samples of KK-Ay mice. The area under the curve was lower in all blood and almost all tissue samples from KK-Ay mice. Total clearance/bioavailability was lower in all blood and tissue samples of KK-Ay mice at all MeHg doses. These results indicate that MeHg is more rapidly absorbed by, and eliminated from, the blood cells, brain, liver, kidney, and pancreas of KK-Ay mice under the experimental conditions. Different patterns of tissue-to-plasma and tissue-to-whole blood partition coefficients suggest that notable differences in MeHg transfer between plasma and blood cells affect its distribution in tissues of the two mouse strains. These findings are useful to understand the selective distribution of MeHg to target organs and the sensitivity to MeHg in pathological states.

Novel toxicity of tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate in adult male rats.

The widespread use of tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TDCIPP) as a flame retardant has led to its release to the environment. Thus, the toxicological effects of TDCIPP on humans and animals are of importance. For better understanding of its potential toxicities, TDCIPP (250, 500, or 650 mg/kg/day) or vehicle control was administrated orally to adult male Wistar-Imamichi rats for 7 days. After the final administration of compounds, organ weights, histopathology, blood biochemistry, and hematology were examined. Hepatic toxicity was observed at doses ≥ 500 mg/kg/day of TDCIPP, and renal toxicity was observed at 650 mg/kg/day. The anti-androgenic activity of TDCIPP was previously confirmed in vitro and in vivo, but weights of epididymis, an androgen-dependent organ, were not affected by TDCIPP treatment in adults. Serum alkaline phosphatase activity was significantly decreased in all TDCIPP-treated rats independent of dose. Hemoglobin concentration, hematocrit, red blood cell count, and reticulocyte count were decreased in all TDCIPP-treated rats, but mean corpuscular volume, total iron-binding capacity, and serum iron were normal, suggesting that renal anemia was caused by TDCIPP. Together with previous reports on effects of anti-androgenic substances on red blood cell indices, anemia caused by TDCIPP could be due to its anti-androgenic activity. These considerations will contribute to further assessment of the toxicity of the compound.

Impact of dietary exposure to low-dose tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl)phosphate in allergic asthmatic mice.

OBJECTIVE: Tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl)phosphate (TDCIPP) is an organophosphorus flame retardant that is an alternative to brominated flame retardants. Although TDCIPP can adversely affect human health, information about its effects on immune and allergic responses is scarce. We aimed to investigate the effects of dietary exposure to TDCIPP using less than the human tolerable daily intake (TDI) in allergic asthmatic mice. METHODS: Male C3H/HeJSlc mice were fed a chow diet containing TDCIPP equivalent to 0.02 µg/kg/day (low; L), 0.2 µg/kg/day (medium; M), or 2 µg/kg/day (high; H) and were intratracheally administered ovalbumin (OVA, 1 µg/animal) every 2 weeks from 5 to 11 weeks of age. RESULTS: In OVA-treated mice, TDCIPP-H exposure tended to enhance pulmonary inflammation compared with vehicle exposure. TDCIPP dose-dependently decreased mRNA level of G protein-coupled estrogen receptor (GPER) in the lungs with or without OVA. OVA + TDCIPP-H treatment tended to increase the total cell number and promoted CD4+ cell activation compared with OVA alone treatment in mediastinal lymph nodes. In splenocytes, an increase in the fraction of Breg cells, but not of total B and T cells, and an increase in IL-5 in cell culture supernatants following OVA re-stimulation in OVA + TDCIPP-H-treated mice was observed compared with OVA-alone-treated mice. Moreover, OVA + TDCIPP-H exposure decreased Gr-1 expression in bone marrow (BM) cells. DISCUSSION: These results suggested that dietary exposure to TDCIPP at TDI level slightly enhances allergic diseases, such as allergic asthma, via GPER regulation at inflamed sites and secondary lymphoid tissue and BM cell alternations.

The impact of oral exposure to low-dose tris(2-butoxyethyl) phosphate in allergic asthmatic mice.

Tris(2-butoxyethyl) phosphate (TBEP) is a major organophosphorus flame retardant and has been widely increasing as a substitute for brominated flame retardants. TBEP may have adverse effects on human health; however, its impact on immune and allergic responses remains largely uncharacterized. In this study, the effects of low-dose TBEP comparable with the level of actual human exposure to that of human tolerable daily intake on allergic asthmatic mice were explored. Five-week-old C3H/HeJSlc male mice consumed a diet containing approximately 0.02, 0.2 or 2 µg/kg/day TBEP and were intratracheally administrated ovalbumin (OVA) (1 µg/mouse every 2 weeks from 5 to 11 weeks of age). Exposure to 2 µg/kg/day TBEP with OVA tended to enhance allergic pulmonary inflammation and significantly elevated mRNA levels of interleukin-5, eotaxin-1 and estrogen receptor alpha (ERα) compared with OVA alone. In mediastinal lymph nodes (MLNs), TBEP (0.2 or 2 µg/kg/day) with OVA significantly increased in total cell number and promoted conventional dendritic cell activation than OVA alone; MLN cell proliferation by OVA restimulation was also enhanced in these groups. In the bone marrow (BM), TBEP (0.02 or 0.2 µg/kg/day) with OVA resulted in a net decrease in total cell number and fraction of CCR2+ Gr-1+ cells; the fraction of Gr-1+ cells increased. In conclusion, oral exposure to low-dose TBEP levels equivalent to tolerable daily intake may exacerbate allergic pulmonary inflammation by promoting a skewed T-helper 2 cell response, upregulation of ERα and dysregulation of both MLN and BM microenvironments.

Evaluation of neurobehavioral impairment in methylmercury-treated KK-Ay mice by dynamic weight-bearing test.

Methylmercury (MeHg) is known to cause neurobehavioral impairment in human and experimental animals. We previously reported that MeHg (5 mg Hg/kg) induced severe neurobehavioral dysfunction in 4-week-old KK-Ay mice, although it is difficult to evaluate quantitatively the neurobehavioral impairment in MeHg-treated KK-Ay mice because of their obesity. The aim of this study was to evaluate MeHg-induced neurobehavioral dysfunction in KK-Ay mice using the dynamic weight-bearing test, which analyzes the animal's weight distribution between the four limbs. Male 12-week-old KK-Ay mice were treated with MeHg (5 mg Hg/kg) three times per week for 5 weeks. Body weight loss began after approximately 2 weeks of MeHg treatment, and decreased significantly at 4 weeks. Seven of the nine MeHg-treated mice exhibited overt neurological symptoms such as ataxia and gait disturbance. The weight-bearing load was lower for the forelimb than for the hindlimb at baseline and until 1 week after MeHg treatment was initiated. In weeks 2-4, the dynamic weight-bearing loads on the forelimb and hindlimb were similar. The load on the forelimb exceeded the load on the hindlimb after 5 weeks of treatment. This finding indicates that the dynamic weight-bearing test is useful for semi-quantitative evaluation of neurobehavioral impairment in MeHg-treated rodents, and is less stressful for the animals. Infiltration of CD204-positive macrophages was observed in the sciatic nerve of MeHg-treated mice, suggesting that CD204 can serve as a useful marker of tissue injury in peripheral nerves and a possible target in regenerating peripheral nerves and controlling neuropathies.

Activation of interleukin-6 and -8 expressions by methylmercury in human U937 macrophages involves RelA and p50.

The accumulation of macrophages has been observed around lesions of the brain in patients with Minamata disease. In this condition, mercury has been detected histochemically in macrophages throughout the brain. However, the role of macrophages in the neurotoxicity of methylmercury (MeHg) and the molecular mechanisms of their response to MeHg exposure remain to be elucidated. Here, we investigated how MeHg affects the expression of proinflammatory cytokines such as interleukin (IL)-6 and IL-8 in cultured human U937 macrophages. Compared with controls, IL-6 and IL-8 mRNA expression was maximally induced in U937 macrophages after treatment with 10 µM MeHg for 6 h. The protein secretion of IL-6 and IL-8 was significantly stimulated by MeHg in U937 macrophages. Results from luciferase reporter assay indicated functional activation of nuclear factor kappa B and the involvement of subunit RelA and p50 in MeHg-induced IL-6 and IL-8 activation, which was confirmed by siRNA knockdown experiments. MeHg exposure at 4 µM also significantly induced IL-8 expression in U-87 MG cells at mRNA and protein level, indicating that IL-8 induction might be a general mode of action of MeHg treatment among different cell types. These results indicate a possible involvement of an early inflammatory response, including IL-6 and IL-8 expression in the pathogenesis of MeHg. N-acetyl-l-cysteine suppressed MeHg-induced activation of IL-6 and IL-8 mRNA expression in U937 macrophages, indicating the effectiveness of N-acetyl-l-cysteine as a therapeutic drug in MeHg-induced inflammation. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Low-dose benzo[a]pyrene aggravates allergic airway inflammation in mice.

Benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) reportedly has mutagenic and adjuvant activities. We aimed to determine the effects of low-dose BaP administration on allergic airway inflammation and mediastinal lymph node (MLN) cell activation/proliferation in mice. Male C3H/HeJ mice were intratracheally administered ovalbumin (OVA) every 2 weeks and/or BaP (0, 0.05, 1 and 20 pmol per animal per week) once per week for 6 weeks. The cellular profile of bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid, histological changes, inflammatory cytokines/chemokines in the lungs, OVA-specific immunoglobulin (Ig) in serum and MLN cell activation/proliferation were examined. BaP administration of 20 pmol with OVA enhanced neutrophil and macrophage accumulation in the lungs. Compared with OVA administration, BaP administration with OVA tended to enhance pulmonary eosinophilia and goblet cell hyperplasia. Furthermore, it increased the levels of interleukin (IL)-5, IL-13, IL-33, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 and eotaxin in the lungs, and OVA-specific IgG1 in serum, although not dose-dependently. Compared with the vehicle group, IL-6 and tumor necrosis factor-alpha levels were higher in the OVA + 1 pmol BaP group and IL-12 production was higher in the OVA + 20 pmol BaP group. Ex vivo studies showed that co-exposure to OVA and BaP activated the MHC class II and CD86 expression in MLN cells. Exposure to BaP with OVA increased IL-4, IL-5 and interferon gamma levels in culture supernatants of OVA-re-stimulated MLN cells. In conclusion, low-dose BaP can, at least in part, enhance allergic airway inflammation by facilitating Th2 responses and activating MLN cells; a high BaP dose may contribute to activating both Th1 and Th2 responses. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Obese mice are resistant to eosinophilic airway inflammation induced by diesel exhaust particles.

Particulate matter can exacerbate respiratory diseases such as asthma. Diesel exhaust particles are the substantial portion of ambient particulate matter with a <2.5 µm diameter in urban areas. Epidemiological data indicate increased respiratory health effects of particulate matter in obese individuals; however, the association between obesity and diesel exhaust particle-induced airway inflammation remains unclear. We aimed to investigate the differences in susceptibility to airway inflammation induced by exposure to diesel exhaust particles between obese mice (db/db) and lean mice (db/+m). Female db/db and db/+m mice were intratracheally administered diesel exhaust particles or vehicle every 2 weeks for a total of seven times. The cellular profile of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and histological changes in the lungs were assessed and the lungs and serum were analyzed for the generation of cytokines, chemokines and soluble intercellular adhesion molecule 1. Diesel exhaust particle exposure-induced eosinophilic infiltration in db/+m mice accompanied by T-helper 2 cytokine, chemokine and soluble intercellular adhesion molecule 1 expression in the lungs. In contrast, it induced mild neutrophilic airway inflammation accompanied by elevated cytokines and chemokines in db/db mice. The lungs of db/db mice exhibited decreased expression of eosinophil activators/chemoattractants such as interleukin-5, interleukin-13 and eotaxin compared with those of db/+m mice. In addition, serum eotaxin and monocyte chemotactic protein-1 levels were significantly higher in db/db mice than in db/+m mice. In conclusion, obesity can affect susceptibility to diesel exhaust particle-induced airway inflammation, which is possibly due to differences in local and systemic inflammatory responses between lean and obese individuals.

Increased methylmercury toxicity related to obesity in diabetic KK-Ay mice.

We examined the toxic effects of methylmercury (MeHg) in KK-Ay type 2 diabetic mice to clarify how metabolic changes associated with type 2 diabetes mellitus affect MeHg toxicity. MeHg (5 mg Hg kg (-1) day(-1) p.o.) was given to 4-week-old male KK-Ay and C57BL/6J (BL/6) mice three times per week for 6 weeks. Average body weights (BW) of vehicle-treated BL/6 and KK-Ay mice were 16.3 and 16.4 g respectively on the first day, and 24.8 and 42.3 g respectively on the last day of the experiment. MeHg-treated KK-Ay mice began to lose weight about 5 weeks after MeHg administration. Six of seven MeHg-treated KK-Ay mice showed hind-limb clasping in the final stage of the experiment. The mean blood mercury level of MeHg-treated KK-Ay mice reached a maximum of 9.8 µg ml(-1) , whereas that of the MeHg-treated BL/6 mice was 2.8 µg ml(-1) after 10 days of treatment. The average total mercury concentrations in the cerebrum and epididymal fat pad were 7.4 and 0.57 µg g(-1) , respectively, for BL/6 mice and 27 and 1.6 µg g(-1) , respectively, for KK-Ay mice. In MeHg-treated KK-Ay mice with neurological symptoms, CD204-positive macrophages were observed in the brain, kidney and spleen, indicating CD204 could be a marker for injured tissues. BW loss and significant pathological changes were not observed in other groups of mice. These results indicate that body fat gain in type 2 diabetes mellitus and low mercury accumulation in adipose tissue increased MeHg concentrations in organs and enhanced toxicity in KK-Ay mice at the same dose of MeHg per BW.

The alkylphenols 4-nonylphenol, 4-tert-octylphenol and 4-tert-butylphenol aggravate atopic dermatitis-like skin lesions in NC/Nga mice.

Phthalate esters in plastics act as adjuvants for immunoglobulin production, which aggravates allergic disease. However, the effects of alkylphenols (used as plasticizers and surfactants) on atopic dermatitis have not been studied in detail. Therefore, the goal of the present study was to investigate the effects of the alkylphenols 4-nonylphenol (NP), 4-tert-octylphenol (OP) and 4-tert-butylphenol (BP) in a murine model of atopic dermatitis. NC/Nga mice were intraperitoneally administered NP, OP or BP and were subcutaneously injected with mite allergen in one ear to induce atopic dermatitis-like skin lesions (ADSLs). The condition of the skin was observed, and the levels of immunoglobulin in serum and inflammatory cytokines in lesions were determined. NP exacerbated mite allergen-induced ADSLs according to dose. OP and BP also significantly exacerbated skin lesions but not as a function of dose. Alkylphenols tended to increase the levels of IgE and antigen-specific IgG1 in serum. Further, the treatment of the alkylphenols increased the expression in lesions of inflammatory cytokines, interleukin-4 and monocyte chemotactic protein-3. Thymic stromal lymphopoietin levels increased according to ADSL severity. In contrast, the levels of the T-helper 1 cytokines (interleukin-18 and interferon-gamma) decreased. NP, OP or BP may enhance T-helper 2-type immune responses in NC/Nga mice, which aggravates mite allergen-induced ADSLs. Therefore, the uptake of very low levels of alkylphenols may contribute to the increase in the incidence of atopic dermatitis.

Effects of oral administration of di-(2-ethylhexyl) and diisononyl phthalates on atopic dermatitis in NC/Nga mice.

CONTEXT: Subcutaneous injection of low dose of phthalates causes adjuvant effects on immunoglobulin production. Moreover, intraperitoneal injection of di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and diisononyl phthalate (DINP) at doses lower than the no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) causes aggravation of atopic dermatitis-like skin lesions (ADSLs) in mouse models. However, the effects of oral exposure to these phthalates, including their effect on atopic dermatitis (AD) symptoms, remain unclear. OBJECTIVE: To investigate the effects of oral administration of DEHP and DINP at doses lower than the NOAEL on AD in an NC/Nga mouse model. MATERIALS AND METHODS: NC/Nga mice were subcutaneously injected with mite-allergen (Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus) to induce ADSLs and orally administered varying doses of DEHP (0, 8.3, 166.3 or 3325 µg/animal) or DINP (0, 6.6, 131.3 or 2625 µg/animal) once a week for four weeks. Skin disease symptomatology was subsequently evaluated and immunoglobulin production levels in serum and inflammatory cytokine levels in lesion sites were measured. RESULTS: Oral administration of low doses of both DEHP and DINP tended to increase infiltration of eosinophils; degranulation of mast cells and local expression of inflammatory cytokines, interleukin-13 and macrophage inflammatory protein-1 alpha in subcutaneous tissue, whereas DINP administration tended to aggravate allergen-induced ADSL production. CONCLUSIONS: Oral administration of both DEHP and DINP at doses lower than the NOAEL tends to increase the allergic response in animal AD models, but only DINP administration slightly aggravates allergen-induced ADSL production.

Organic chemicals in diesel exhaust particles enhance picryl chloride-induced atopic dermatitis in NC/Nga mice.

BACKGROUND: Diesel exhaust particles (DEP) have been reported to worsen allergic airway inflammation in mice. Recently, the organic chemical components of DEP (DEP-OC) were found to be important contributors to the aggravation of allergic airway inflammation in mice. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of DEP-OC on atopic dermatitis (AD)-like skin lesions induced by picryl chloride (PiCl) in NC/Nga mice. METHODS: DEP were extracted with benzene/ethanol, and the soluble organic fraction formed the DEP-OC. NC/Nga male mice received simultaneous application of DEP-OC and/or PiCl on their ears once a week for 9 or 3 weeks. We evaluated skin lesions by noting scaling, eruption, excoriation, erosion, hemorrhage, pathologic changes, production of cytokines, and IgE level in the serum. RESULTS: PiCl application alone produced progressively severe AD-like skin lesions. The application of PiCl plus DEP-OC resulted in a marked worsening of skin lesions in the early stages of AD. Moreover, mast cell counts significantly increased in the subcutaneous tissue. Administration of PiCl combined with DEP-OC resulted in a greater increase in the local expression of interleukin-4, keratinocyte chemoattractant, and neutrophils in subcutaneous tissue compared with PiCl treatment alone. In contrast, the combination treatment produced lower levels of IFN-γ compared with PiCl treatment alone. CONCLUSIONS: DEP-OC application to the skin aggravated PiCl-induced AD. This aggravation may be due to activation of the Th2-associated immune responses by the organic chemicals in DEP.

Brominated flame retardants stimulate mouse immune cells in vitro.

Brominated flame retardants (BFRs) are widely used in consumer products. Their toxicological effects as endocrine disruptors have been partly examined. However, their immunological effects have not been elucidated. To evaluate the effects of BFRs on immune responses, we investigated whether BFRs affect phenotypes and the function of immune cells in vitro. Here we examined the commercial pentabromodiphenyl ether mixture (DE-71), octabromodiphenyl ether mixture (DE-79), decabromodiphenyl ether mixture (DE-83R), hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) and tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA). Splenocytes and bone marrow (BM) cells were prepared from atopic prone NC/Nga mice. Splenocytes were exposed to each BFR for 24 h. BM cells were cultured with granulocyte macrophage-colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF) for 8 days and BM-derived dendritic cells (BMDCs) were exposed to each BFR for 24 h. In another experiment, BM cells were cultured with GM-CSF in the presence of each BFR for 6 days during BMDC differentiation. After exposure, cell surface molecule expression and cytokine production were investigated. Each BFR increased MHC class II and CD86 expression and interleukin (IL)-4 production in splenocytes. DE-71, HBCD and TBBPA increased T cell receptor (TCR) expression in splenocytes. In both experiments, all BFRs except TBBPA increased DEC205 expression in BMDCs. BMDCs that differentiated in the presence of HBCD showed enhanced MHC class II, CD80, CD86 and CD11c expression. The results demonstrate that some BFRs may stimulate immune cells. BFRs can induce or enhance immune/allergic responses by increasing antigen presentation-related molecule expression and IL-4 production.

Expression levels of neuroimmune biomarkers in hypothalamus of allergic mice after phthalate exposure.

Previously, we demonstrated that maternal exposure to phthalates enhances atopic dermatitis in male mouse offspring. However, whether phthalate exposure affects neuroimmune biomarkers in allergic mice has not yet been studied. Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and di-isononyl phthalate (DINP) are environmental chemicals that are commonly used as plasticizers. This study was designed to investigate the expression levels of neuroimmune biomarkers in the hypothalamus of a murine model of allergic asthma after phthalate exposure throughout juvenility until adulthood. Six-week-old C3H/HeJ Jcl male mice were treated with DEHP or DINP (0, 0.02, 0.4 or 8 nmol per body per week) and ovalbumin (OVA; 1 µg per body per 2 weeks) for 7 weeks intratracheally. On the day after the completion of the phthalate and OVA treatment, the hypothalamus from each mouse was collected, and the mRNA expression levels of neuroimmune biomarkers were examined using a real-time RT-PCR analysis. The mRNA expression levels of the proinflammatory cytokines interleukin (IL)-1ß and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, the chemokine CCL3, the transcription factor nuclear factor (NF)-κB, the oxidative stress marker heme-oxygenase (HO)1, a nerve growth factor, and the microglia marker Iba1 were remarkably up-regulated in the hypothalami of mice treated with 8 nmol of DEHP in the presence of the allergen. However, no significant changes were observed, except for reductions in the TNF-α and CCL2 mRNA levels, in mice exposed to DINP combined with the allergen. This study is the first report to show that high-dose DEHP exposure throughout juvenility until adulthood may induce neuroinflammation by modulating neuroimmune biomarkers in the hypothalami of allergic mice.

Dietary supplementation with fructooligosaccharides attenuates allergic peritonitis in mice.

Fructooligosaccharides (FOS) are a prebiotic supplement, which can enhance immunological responses in the host to activate mucosal immunity probably through regulation of gastrointestinal microflora. Nonetheless, the therapeutic potential of prebiotics on allergic pathologies has not been fully elucidated. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to evaluate the preventive and therapeutic effects of dietary supplementation with FOS on a murine model of allergic peritonitis induced by ovalbumin (OVA). Male C3H/HeN mice were intraperitoneally administrated with OVA (1 µg) bi-weekly (Day 0-42, total four times) and were fed a diet containing 0 or 2.5% FOS ad libitum (Day 7-43). At Day 43, mice were killed and several parameters were evaluated. As results, supplementation with FOS alleviated OVA-related peritoneal inflammation characterized by trafficking of polymorphonuclear leukocytes such as eosinophils and neutrophils in the peritoneal cavity. Also, FOS significantly suppressed the protein level of interleukin (IL)-5 and eotaxin in the peritoneal lavage fluid elicited by OVA. In addition, a FOS-supplemented diet significantly reduced the serum allergen specific-IgG(1) level, whereas it significantly increased total IgA levels in the cecal contents as compared with a control diet in the presence of OVA. These results suggest that dietary supplementation with FOS can prevent/ameliorate allergic peritoneal inflammation induced by OVA. The efficacy can at least partially be associated with the regulation of Ig class switching and inhibition of the local expression of IL-5 and eotaxin.