Mitogen-activated protein kinase 4-like carrying an MEY motif instead of a TXY motif is involved in ozone tolerance and regulation of stomatal closure in tobacco.

The mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs/MPKs) are important factors in the regulation of signal transduction in response to biotic and abiotic stresses. Previously, we characterized a MAPK from tobacco, Nicotiana tabacum MPK4 (NtMPK4). Here, we found a highly homologous gene, NtMPK4-like (NtMPK4L), in tobacco as well as other species in Solanaceae and Gramineae. Deduced amino acid sequences of their translation products carried MEY motifs instead of conserved TXY motifs of the MAPK family. We isolated the full length NtMPK4L gene and examined the physiological functions of NtMPK4L. We revealed that NtMPK4L was activated by wounding, like NtMPK4. However, a constitutively active salicylic acid-induced protein kinase kinase (SIPKK(EE)), which phosphorylates NtMPK4, did not phosphorylate NtMPK4L. Moreover, a tyrosine residue in the MEY motif was not involved in NtMPK4L activation. We also found that NtMPK4L-silenced plants showed rapid transpiration caused by remarkably open stomata. In addition, NtMPK4L-silenced plants completely lost the ability to close stomata upon ozone treatment and were highly sensitive to ozone, suggesting that this atypical MAPK plays a role in ozone tolerance through stomatal regulation.

Polyamines as a common source of hydrogen peroxide in host- and nonhost hypersensitive response during pathogen infection.

The hypersensitive response (HR) is a powerful resistance system that plants have developed against pathogen attack. There are two major pathways for HR induction; one is through recognition of the pathogen by a specific host protein, and is known as the host HR. The other is through common biochemical changes upon infection--the nonhost HR. We previously demonstrated that hydrogen peroxide derived from polyamine degradation by polyamine oxidase triggers the typical host HR in tobacco plants upon infection with tobacco mosaic virus. However, it remains to be determined whether or not polyamines are involved in the nonhost HR in tobacco, and in the host HR in other plant species. When tobacco plants were infected with Pseudomonas cichorii, a representative nonhost pathogen, transcripts for six genes encoding enzymes for polyamine metabolism were simultaneously induced, and polyamines were accumulated in apoplasts. Hydrogen peroxide was concomitantly produced and hypersensitive cell death occurred at infected sites. Silencing of polyamine oxidase by the virus-induced gene silencing method resulted in suppression of hydrogen peroxide production and in disappearance of visible hypersensitive cell death with an increase in bacterial growth. Our results indicated that polyamines served as the source of hydrogen peroxide during the nonhost HR in tobacco plants. Further analysis revealed that polyamines were accumulated in apoplasts of Arabidopsis thaliana infected with Pseudomonas syringae, and of rice infected with Magnaporthe grisea, both causing the typical host HR. As in tobacco, it is conceivable that the same mechanism operates for nonhost HR in these plants. Our present observations thus suggested that polyamines are commonly utilized as the source of hydrogen peroxide during host- and nonhost HRs in higher plants.

Simultaneous activation of salicylate production and fungal resistance in transgenic Chrysanthemum producing caffeine.

Caffeine functions in the chemical defense against biotic attackers in a few plant species, including coffee and tea. Transgenic tobacco plants that endogenously produced caffeine by expressing three N-methyltransferases involved in the caffeine biosynthesis pathway exhibited a strong resistance to pathogens and herbivores. Here we report that transgenic Chrysanthemum, which produced an equivalent level of caffeine as the tobacco plants at approximately 3 µg g(-1) fresh tissues, also exhibited a resistance against grey mold fungal attack. Transcripts of PR-2 gene, a marker for pathogen response, were constitutively accumulated in mature leaves without pathogen attack. The levels of salicylic acid and its glucoside conjugate in mature leaves of the transgenic lines were found to be 2.5-fold higher than in the wild type control. It is suggested that endogenous caffeine stimulated production and/or deposition of salicylates, which possibly activated a series of defense reactions even under non-stressed conditions.

Polyamine oxidase is one of the key elements for oxidative burst to induce programmed cell death in tobacco cultured cells.

Programmed cell death plays a critical role during the hypersensitive response in the plant defense system. One of components that triggers it is hydrogen peroxide, which is generated through multiple pathways. One example is proposed to be polyamine oxidation, but direct evidence for this has been limited. In this article, we investigated relationships among polyamine oxidase, hydrogen peroxide, and programmed cell death using a model system constituted of tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) cultured cell and its elicitor, cryptogein. When cultured cells were treated with cryptogein, programmed cell death occurred with a distinct pattern of DNA degradation. The level of hydrogen peroxide was simultaneously increased, along with polyamine oxidase activity in apoplast. With the same treatment in the presence of alpha-difluoromethyl-Orn, an inhibitor of polyamine biosynthesis, production of hydrogen peroxide was suppressed and programmed cell death did not occur. A gene encoding a tobacco polyamine oxidase that resides in the apoplast was isolated and used to construct RNAi transgenic cell lines. When these lines were treated with cryptogein, polyamines were not degraded but secreted into culture medium and hydrogen peroxide was scarcely produced, with a concomitant suppression of cell death. Activities of mitogen-activated protein kinases (wound- and salicylic acid-induced protein kinases) were also suppressed, indicating that phosphorylation cascade is involved in polyamine oxidation-derived cell death. These results suggest that polyamine oxidase is a key element for the oxidative burst, which is essential for induction of programmed cell death, and that mitogen-activated protein kinase is one of the factors that mediate this pathway.

Activation of a novel transcription factor through phosphorylation by WIPK, a wound-induced mitogen-activated protein kinase in tobacco plants.

Wound-induced protein kinase (WIPK) is a tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) mitogen-activated protein kinase known to play an essential role in defense against wounding and pathogens, although its downstream targets have yet to be clarified. This study identified a gene encoding a protein of 648 amino acids, which directly interacts with WIPK, designated as N. tabacum WIPK-interacting factor (NtWIF). The N-terminal region with approximately 250 amino acids showed a high similarity to the plant-specific DNA binding domain, B3, but no other similarity with known proteins. The C terminus of approximately 200 amino acids appeared to be essential for the interaction with WIPK, and a Luciferase-reporter gene assay using Bright Yellow 2 cells indicated the full-length protein to possess trans-activation activity, located to the middle region of approximately 200 amino acids. In vitro phosphorylation assays indicated that WIPK efficiently phosphorylates the full-length protein and the N terminus but not the C terminus. When full-length NtWIF was coexpressed with WIPK in Bright Yellow 2 cells, the Luciferase transcriptional activity increased up to 5-fold that of NtWIF alone, whereas no effect was observed with a kinase-deficient WIPK mutant. Transcripts of NtWIF began to simultaneously accumulate with those of WIPK 30 min after wounding and 1 h after the onset of hypersensitive response upon tobacco mosaic virus infection. These results suggest that NtWIF is a transcription factor that is directly phosphorylated by WIPK, thereby being activated for transcription of target gene(s) involved in wound and pathogen responses.

Activation of hypersensitive response genes in the absence of pathogens in transgenic tobacco plants expressing a rice small GTPase.

Transgenic tobacco ( Nicotiana tabacum L.) plants constitutively expressing a rice ( Oryza sativa L.) gene encoding a small GTPase, rgp1, showed marked resistance to tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) infection compared with the wild type [H. Sano et al. (1994) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 91:10556-10560]. In order to examine the gene expression profile, the temperature-shift method was adopted to hyper-activate the N-gene inducing the hypersensitive response (HR), and transcripts of 11 representative HR genes were analyzed. In transgenic and wild-type plants, transcripts of 10 genes were induced during the HR; however, in most cases, their expression level was higher in the former than in the latter. Mock treatment of transgenic plants also efficiently induced transcripts of 8 out of 11 genes after temperature shift, indicating that their activation is mediated by the N-gene. Salicylic acid and its glucoside-conjugates were induced in both transgenic and wild-type plants, but their quantity in the former was unusually higher than in the latter. These results suggest that expression of rgp1 positively influenced the signaling pathway of the HR, resulting in higher induction of salicylates. This possibly caused a "priming effect" that hyper-activates the HR genes through the N-gene without TMV infection. It was thus conceivable that, despite a structural similarity to the Rab-family of GTPases, which function in membrane trafficking, rgp1 might participate in the signal transduction pathway of the HR.

Induction of hypersensitive cell death by hydrogen peroxide produced through polyamine degradation in tobacco plants.

Screening immediate-early responding genes during the hypersensitive response (HR) against tobacco mosaic virus infection in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) plants, we identified a gene encoding ornithine decarboxylase. Subsequent analyses showed that other genes involved in polyamine biosynthesis were also up-regulated, resulting in the accumulation of polyamines in apoplasts of tobacco mosaic virus-infected leaves. Inhibitors of polyamine biosynthesis, alpha-difluoromethyl-ornithine, however, suppressed accumulation of polyamines, and the rate of HR was reduced. In contrast, polyamine infiltration into a healthy leaf induced the generation of hydrogen peroxide and simultaneously caused HR-like cell death. Polyamine oxidase activity in the apoplast increased up to 3-fold that of the basal level during the HR, and its suppression with a specific inhibitor, guazatine, resulted in reduced HR. Because it is established that hydrogen peroxide is one of the degradation products of polyamines, these results indicate that one of the biochemical events in the HR is production of polyamines, whose degradation induces hydrogen peroxide, eventually resulting in hypersensitive cell death.

Induction of transcripts encoding a novel seven-transmembrane protein during the hypersensitive response to tobacco mosaic virus infection in tobacco plants.

Immediate early responsive genes were screened by the differential display method during the hypersensitive response upon tobacco mosaic virus infection of tobacco ( Nicotiana tabacum L.) plants carrying the N gene. Three hours after temperature shift from 30 degrees C to 20 degrees C, an increase in transcripts of a particular clone was observed. The cDNA encoded a polypeptide of 330 amino acids, whose topology indicated it to be a seven-transmembrane protein, designated as Nt7TM1. This was confirmed by direct observation of cultured tobacco cells expressing an Nt7TM1-green fluorescent protein fusion protein, which migrated exclusively to the plasma membrane and the endoplasmic reticulum. RNA blot hybridization analysis indicated that Nt7TM1 transcripts were not induced by salicylic or jasmonic acids, ethylene or hydrogen peroxide. The results suggested the presence of a unique system for pathogen response involving a novel seven-transmembrane protein.