Gaps in hygiene promotion at schools in Pakistan: qualitative descriptive research.

School health remains an ignored domain in Pakistan. This article presents gaps in understanding hygiene promotion efforts in school settings in urban squatter settlements by exploring perspectives of the key stakeholders and undertaking a review of the education curriculum. Using qualitative methodology, 13 in-depth interviews were held with the key informants (teachers, health and education officers) and three focus group discussions were conducted with 36 mothers. The study setting includes three schools located in a semi-urban area in the province of Sindh, Pakistan. The semi-structured guide was utilized to obtain perspectives of key stakeholders on factors constraining hygiene promotion efforts in school settings. The primary education curriculum was reviewed using the content analysis approach to assess the integration of hygiene concepts into the curriculum. Analysis of qualitative interviews and curriculum review resulted in five categories under a theme that addressed multiple factors constraining hygiene promotion in the school settings. These include (i) Gaps in the school curriculum, (ii) Poor accountability of the local administration in the upkeep of schools, (iii) Parent's negligence toward children's hygiene, (iv) Inadequate training of school teachers on hygiene concepts, and (v) Lack of interdepartmental coordination between health and education sectors. Hygiene promotion at schools has been deterred by multiple factors at the selected primary schools in Pakistan. Recommended actions include integration of health and hygiene concepts into the education curriculum, capacity building of teachers, reviving water, sanitation and hygiene infrastructure, coordination among Education and Health Departments and ownership among the local government to ensure cleanliness at schools.

Schools are not only expected to provide education to children, their mandate also includes health and hygiene promotion. Keeping in view the dearth of evidence in understanding the role of schools in hygiene promotion in the local context, this research was conducted in three semi-urban school settings in Sindh province, Pakistan. We aimed to identify factors that constrain hygiene promotion efforts at the school level. As part of this research, we interviewed multiple stakeholders. This includes (teachers, mothers, education and health officers) at the primary school level. Our findings revealed serious gaps in hygiene promotion at schools. This includes inadequate attention to hygiene concepts in the curriculum books, inconducive school environment, teachers' and parents' negligence toward children's hygiene and communication gap among them, and absence of coordination between health and education sectors. To conclude, multiple actions are needed to emphasize hygiene promotion at the school level. This ranged from revision in the education curriculum and training of teachers in hygiene promotion to instituting accountability mechanisms at the local Education Department and building strong coordination between Education and Health departments.

Building on the Health Policy Analysis Triangle: Elucidation of the Elements.

The health policy triangle first presented in the 20th century by Walt and Gilson has been extensively used at local, national, regional, and international levels to assess health policies related to communicable and non-communicable diseases, physical and mental health, antenatal and postnatal care, and human resources, services, and systems. However, the framework lacks intricate details for the four pillars in the triangle viz: 'content,' 'context', 'actors', and 'processes. We propose a checklist of elements to be considered for each pillar; to ease and enhance the process of policy analyses for researchers and policymakers across the globe, including low- and middle-income countries. We suggest using Leichter's categorization of situational, structural, cultural, and environmental factors for comprehensive contextual assessment. Kingdon's multiple streams framework can be applied to determine the 'window of opportunity' allowing the politics, policy, and problem streams to unite, giving birth to the formulation of policies. Lastly, stakeholders' analyses expounding the power, influence, interest, and involvement of intrinsic, extrinsic, implicit, and explicit players should be applied to explore the 'actors' in policy analyses. Robust policy analyses for generating evidence are of paramount importance for policymakers for informed decision-making. Our approach of dis-entangling and elaborating the pillars of the triangle will be helpful for health systems researchers at sub-national, national, regional and global levels to serve as a basis for evidence-based informed decision-making.

Diffusion of innovations: a guiding framework for public health.

Exploring the behavior change process has been of interest and importance to public health professionals, to translate research into practice. Diffusion of innovations (DOI) model has been extensively applied in public health to examine the process by which innovation is passively communicated to individuals and groups. It builds on a staged model of awareness, persuasion, decision, implementation, and confirmation; and categorizes communities into innovators (2.5%), early adopters (13.5%), early majority (34%), late majority (34%) and laggards (16%). It reflects on the diversity of strategies to be applied for different cadres of the society to bring about a wholistic change. Nonetheless, DOI suffers from 'pro-innovation' and 'individual blame' bias, as it fails to account for the influence of societal, cultural, and extraneous factors affecting individual behavior change. The social networks theory (SNT) in contrast, explains behavior change based on social networks and their influences. It builds on the constructs of homophily, centralization, reciprocity, transitivity, and density; and fills the void in the DOI model. We suggest public health professionals to combine the constructs of DOI and SNT in rolling out behavior change interventions, to yield a comprehensive approach.

Improving community health worker performance through supportive supervision: a randomised controlled implementation trial in Pakistan.

AIM: To assess the effect of enhanced supportive supervision of lady health workers (LHWs) by lady health supervisors on integrated community case management of childhood pneumonia and diarrhoea. METHODS: A total of thirty-four supervisors were randomly assigned to intervention and comparison arms. The intervention included enhanced training of supervisors on supervisory skills and written feedback to LHWs by supervisors. The performance of both cadres was assessed three times. Household surveys judged caregiver practices. RESULTS: Intervention arm LHWs performed better than those in the comparison arm in assessing dehydration (92% [n = 25] vs 64% [n = 25]) and in classifying diarrhoea correctly (68% [n = 25] vs 40% [n = 25]). The two arms differed little in correct disease classification for pneumonia (44% [n = 25] vs 40% [n = 25]). Supervisory performance of intervention arm supervisors was better than that in the comparison arm in correcting the workers' clinical examination skills (64% [n = 25] vs 40% [n = 25]) and more frequent feedback. In the household survey, only 18% (n = 2182) intervention and 23% (n = 2197) comparison arm caregivers considered LHWs capable of providing diarrhoea and pneumonia care. Commodities for integrated community case management were not regularly available to workers. CONCLUSION: Supportive supervision can improve community case management performance. Support through refresher training, logistics and commodities is essential.

Exploring health care seeking knowledge, perceptions and practices for childhood diarrhea and pneumonia and their context in a rural Pakistani community.

BACKGROUND: Where access to facilities for childhood diarrhea and pneumonia is inadequate, community case management (CCM) is an effective way of improving access to care. In Pakistan, utilization of CCM for these diseases through the Lady Health Worker Program remains low. Challenges of access to facilities persist leading to delayed care and poor outcomes. Estimating caregiver knowledge, understanding their perceptions and practices, and recognizing how these are related to care seeking decisions about childhood diarrhea and pneumonia is crucial to bring about coherence between supply and demand-side practices. METHODS: Data was collected from family caregivers to explore their knowledge, perceptions and practices regarding childhood diarrhea and pneumonia. Data from a household survey with 7025 caregivers, seven focus group discussion (FGDs), seven in-depth interviews (IDIs), and 20 detailed narrative interviews are used to explore caregiver knowledge, perceptions and practices. RESULTS: Household survey shows that most family caregivers recognize main signs and symptoms of diarrhea such as loose stools (76%). Fewer recognize signs and symptoms of pneumonia such as breathing problems (21%). Few caregivers (18%) have confidence in lady health workers' (LHWs) ability to treat childhood diarrhea and pneumonia. Care seeking from LHWs remains negligible (< 1%). Caregivers overwhelmingly prefer to seek care from doctors (97%). Seventy-five percent caregivers sought care from private providers and 45% from public providers. FGDs, IDIs, and narrative interviews show that care mostly begins with home remedies and sometimes self-prescribed medicines. Treatment delays occur because of caregiver inability to recognize disease, use of home remedies, financial constraints, and low utilization of community based LHW services. Caregivers do not seek care from LHWs because of lack of trust and LHWs' inability to provide medicines. If finances allow, private doctors, who caregivers perceive as more responsive, are preferred over public sector doctors. Financial resources, availability of time, support for household chores by family and community determine whether, when, and from whom caregivers seek care. CONCLUSIONS: Many children do not receive recommended diarrhea and pneumonia treatment on time. Taking into consideration caregiver concerns, adequate supply of medicines to LHWs, improved facility level care could improve care seeking practices and child health outcomes. TRIAL REGISTRATION: The trial is registered with 'Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry'. Registration Number: ACTRN12613001261707 . Registered 18 November 2013.

Inspiring health worker motivation with supportive supervision: a survey of lady health supervisor motivating factors in rural Pakistan.

BACKGROUND: Community health worker motivation is an important consideration for improving performance and addressing maternal, newborn, and child health in low and middle-income countries. Therefore, identifying health system interventions that address motivating factors in resource-strained settings is essential. This study is part of a larger implementation research project called Nigraan, which is intervening on supportive supervision in the Lady Health Worker Programme to improve community case management of pneumonia and diarrhea in rural Pakistan. This study explored the motivation of Lady Health Supervisors, a cadre of community health workers, with particular attention to their views on supportive supervision. METHODS: Twenty-nine lady health supervisors enrolled in Nigraan completed open-ended structured surveys with questions exploring factors that affect their motivation. Thematic analysis was conducted using a conceptual framework categorizing motivating factors at individual, community, and health system levels. RESULTS: Supportive supervision, recognition, training, logistics, and salaries are community and health system motivating factors for lady health supervisors. Lady health supervisors are motivated by both their role in providing supportive supervision to lady health workers and by the supervisory support received from their coordinators and managers. Family support, autonomy, and altruism are individual level motivating factors. CONCLUSIONS: Health system factors, including supportive supervision, are crucial to improving lady health supervisor motivation. As health worker motivation influences their performance, evaluating the impact of health system interventions on community health worker motivation is important to improving the effectiveness of community health worker programs.

Health workers' perspectives, knowledge and skills regarding community case management of childhood diarrhoea and pneumonia: a qualitative inquiry for an implementation research project "Nigraan" in District Badin, Sindh, Pakistan.

BACKGROUND: Pakistan's Lady Health Worker Programme aims to provide care to children sick with pneumonia and diarrhoea, which continues to cause 27 % under-five mortality in Pakistan. The quality of supervision received by Lady Health Workers (LHWs) in the programme influence their knowledge and skills, in turn impacting their ability to provide care. METHODS: This study is part of an implementation research project titled "Nigraan" (an Urdu word meaning supervisor), and explores LHW and Lady Health Supervisor (LHS) perspectives regarding the role of supervision in improving LHWs performance and motivation in district Badin, Sindh, Pakistan. Their knowledge and skills regarding integrated community case management (iCCM) of diarrhoea and pneumonia were also assessed. Fourteen focus group discussions and 20 in-depth interviews were conducted as part of this qualitative inquiry. Analysis was done using QSR NVivo version 10. RESULTS: Most LHWs and LHSs identified pneumonia and diarrhoea as two major causes of death among children under-five. Poverty, illiteracy, poor hygiene and lack of clean drinking water were mentioned as underlying causes of high mortality due to diarrhoea and pneumonia. LHWs and LHSs gaps in knowledge included classification of dehydration, correctly preparing ORS and prescribing correct antibiotics in pneumonia. Lack of training, delayed salaries and insufficient medicines and other supplies were identified as major factors impeding appropriate knowledge and skill development for iCCM of childhood diarrhoea and pneumonia. LHWs considered adequate supervision and the presence of LHSs during household visits as a factor facilitating their performance. LHWs did not have a preference for written or verbal feedback, but LHSs considered written individual feedback to LHWs to be more useful than group and verbal feedback. CONCLUSION: LHWs have knowledge and skill gaps that prevent them from providing effective care for diarrhoea and pneumonia. Enhanced supportive feedback from LHSs could improve LHWs skills and performance.

A case study of outsourced primary healthcare services in Sindh, Pakistan: is this a real reform?

BACKGROUND: Since a decade, low and middle income countries have a rising trend of contracting their primary healthcare services to NGOs. In Pakistan, public sector often lacks capacity to effectively & equitably manage the healthcare services. It led the government to outsource the administration of primary health care services to a semi-autonomous government entity i.e. Peoples' Primary Healthcare Initiative (PPHI). This small scale study has assessed the quality of healthcare services at the contracted Basic Health Units (BHUs) with the PPHI and compared it with those managed by the local district government in the province of Sindh. METHODS: A cross-sectional mix methods survey was conducted in November 2011. Two BHUs of each type were selected from the districts Karachi and Thatta in Sindh province. BHUs were selected randomly and a purposive sampling technique was used to recruit the study participants at the two study sites. Focus group discussions were conducted with patients visiting the facility while in-depth interviews were conducted with service providers. An observation based resource availability checklist was also administered. RESULTS: There was a significant difference between the PPHI and the district government administered BHUs with regard to infrastructure, availability of essential medicines, basic medical appliances, mini-lab facilities and vehicles for referrals. These BHUs were found to have sufficient number of trained clinical staff and no punctuality and retention issues whatsoever. The district government administered BHUs presented a dismal picture in all the aspects. CONCLUSION: Out-sourcing of primary healthcare facilities has resulted in significantly improved certain aspects quality and responsiveness of primary healthcare services. This strategy is likely to achieve an efficient and perhaps an equitable healthcare delivery in low and middle income countries where governments have limited capacity to manage healthcare services.

A systematic review of mental health of women in fragile and humanitarian settings of the Eastern Mediterranean Region.

Background: The increasing emergencies and humanitarian challenges have worsened the mental health condition of women in the Eastern Mediterranean Region. Aim: To assess the prevalence, determinants and interventions to address mental health among women in fragile and humanitarian settings in the Eastern Mediterranean Region. Methods: Using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-analysis guidelines, we reviewed 59 peer-reviewed published studies (PubMed, IMEMR) and grey literature (WHO/IRIS) from January 2001 to February 2023, focusing on women's mental health in the Eastern Mediterranean Region. We then conducted a descriptive analysis of the sociodemographic characteristics. Results: Among the 59 studies reviewed, only 13 of the 48 peer-reviewed studies focused primarily on women's mental health, 11 grey literature records mostly presented grouped regional data, 11 of the 25 studies on mental health among migrants were about those taking refuge in high-income countries. The average prevalence of mental disorders from 32 cross-sectional studies on women aged 12-75 years was 49%, average prevalence of anxiety was 68%, post-traumatic stress disorder was 52%, and depression was 43%. Women exhibited higher level depression than men. Age, educational disparities, and limited access to services were important risk factors for mental health disorder. Several promising interventions emerged. Conclusion: More efforts should be made to provide customized, context-specific solutions to the mental health challenges of women in humanitarian and fragile settings in the Eastern Mediterranean Region, including allocation of more resources to mental health programmes, addressing barriers, enhancing mental health surveillance, and reduction of stigma.

Interventions to reduce neonatal mortality from neonatal tetanus in low and middle income countries--a systematic review.

BACKGROUND: In 1988, WHO estimated around 787,000 newborns deaths due to neonatal tetanus. Despite few success stories majority of the Low and Middle Income Countries (LMICs) are still struggling to reduce neonatal mortality due to neonatal tetanus. We conducted a systematic review to understand the interventions that have had a substantial effect on reducing neonatal mortality rate due to neonatal tetanus in LMICs and come up with feasible recommendations for decreasing neonatal tetanus in the Pakistani setting. METHODS: We systemically reviewed the published literature (Pubmed and Pubget databases) to identify appropriate interventions for reducing tetanus related neonatal mortality. A total of 26 out of 30 studies were shortlisted for preliminary screening after removing overlapping information. Key words used were "neonatal tetanus, neonatal mortality, tetanus toxoid women". Of these twenty-six studies, 20 were excluded. The pre-defined exclusion criteria was (i) strategies and interventions to reduce mortality among neonates not described (ii) no abstract/author (4 studies) (iii) not freely accessible online (1 study) (iv) conducted in high income countries (2 studies) and (v) not directly related to neonatal tetanus mortality and tetanus toxoid immunization (5). Finally six studies which met the eligibility criteria were entered in the pre-designed data extraction form and five were selected for commentary as they were directly linked with neonatal tetanus reduction. RESULTS: Interventions that were identified to reduce neonatal mortality in LMICs were: a) vaccination of women of child bearing age (married and unmarried both) with tetanus toxoid b) community based interventions i.e. tetanus toxoid immunization for all mothers; clean and skilled care at delivery; newborn resuscitation; exclusive breastfeeding; umbilical cord care and management of infections in newborns c) supplementary immunization (in addition to regular EPI program) d) safer delivery practices. CONCLUSION: The key intervention to reduce neonatal mortality from neonatal tetanus was found to be vaccination of pregnant women with tetanus toxoid. In the resource poor countries like Pakistan, this single intervention coupled with regular effective antenatal checkups, clean delivery practices and compliance with the "high- risk" approach can be effective in reducing neonatal tetanus.

Research fatigue among injecting drug users in Karachi, Pakistan.

BACKGROUND: Karachi is the largest metropolis of Pakistan and its economic hub attracting domestic migrants for economic opportunities. It is also the epicenter of HIV epidemic in the country. Since 2004, one pilot study and four behavioral and biological surveillance rounds have been conducted in Karachi. In addition many student research projects have also focused on key risk groups including injection drug users (IDUs). As a result of this extra ordinary exposure of same kind of questions, IDUs know how to respond to high value questions related to sharing of needles or unsafe sexual practices. The purpose of the study was to explore the element of research fatigue among IDUs in Karachi, Pakistan. METHODS: The study was conducted on 32 spots in Karachi, selected on the basis of estimate of IDUs at each spot. A trained field worker (recovered IDU) visited each spot; observed sharing behavior of IDUs and asked questions related to practices in January 2009. Verbal consent was obtained from each respondent before asking questions. RESULTS: On average 14 IDUs were present at each spot and out of 32 selected spots, 81% were active while more than two groups were present at 69% spots. In each group three to four IDUs were present and everyone in the group was sharing. One dose of injecting narcotics was observed. Sharing of syringes, needles and distilled water was observed at 63% spots while professional injector/street doctor was present at 60% spots. CONCLUSION: There is a need to check internal consistency in surveillance research. It is highly likely that IDUs and other risk groups know how to respond to key questions but their responses do not match with the practices.

Protecting and promoting the rights of the 'reserve army of labour': a policy analysis of structural determinants of migrant worker health in Pakistan and Qatar.

Labour migrants who travel overseas for employment can face deep health inequities driven in large part by upstream social and structural determinants of health. We sought to study the 'labour migrant health ecosystem' between one sending country (Pakistan) and one host country (Qatar), with a focus on how the ecosystem realizes the rights of labour migrants when addressing the social and structural determinants (e.g. housing, employment law, etc.) of health. Study objectives were to (1) undertake an in-depth review of policies addressing the structural and social determinants of the health of labour migrants in both Pakistan and Qatar, analysing the extent to which these policies align with global guidance, are equity-focused and have clear accountability mechanisms in place, and (2) explore national stakeholder perspectives on priority setting for labour migrant health. We used a mixed methods approach, combining policy content analysis and interviews with stakeholders in both countries. We found a wide range of guidance from the multilateral system on addressing structural determinants of the health of labour migrants. However, policy responses in Pakistan and Qatar contained a limited number of these recommended interventions and had low implementation potential and minimal reference to gender, equity and rights. Key national stakeholders had few political incentives to act and lacked inter-country coordination mechanisms required for an effective and cohesive response to labour migrant health issues. Effectively addressing such determinants to achieve health equity for labour migrants will depend on a shift in governments' attitudes towards migrants-from a reserve army of transient, replaceable economic resources to rights-holding members of society deserving of equality, dignity and respect.

Comparing risk factors of HIV among hijra sex workers in Larkana and other cities of Pakistan: an analytical cross sectional study.

BACKGROUND: In 2005, Pakistan was first labeled as a country with concentrated epidemic of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). This was revealed through second generation surveillance conducted by HIV/AIDS Surveillance Project (HASP). While injection drug users (IDUs) were driving the epidemic, subsequent surveys showed that Hijra (transgender) sex workers (HSWs) were emerging as the second most vulnerable group with an average national prevalence of 6.4%. An exceptionally high prevalence (27.6%) was found in Larkana, which is a small town on the right bank of river Indus near the ruins of Mohenjo-Daro in the province of Sindh. This paper presents the risk factors associated with high prevalence of HIV among HSWs in Larkana as compared to other cities of the country. METHODS: Data were extracted for secondary analysis from 2008 Integrated behavioral and biological survey (IBBS) to compare HSWs living in Larkana with those living in other cities including Karachi and Hyderabad in Sindh; Lahore and Faisalabad in Punjab; and Peshawar in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa provinces. After descriptive analysis, univariate and multivariate analyses were performed to identify risk factors. P value of 0.25 or less was used to include factors in multivariate analysis. RESULTS: We compared 199 HSWs from Larkana with 420 HSWs from other cities. The average age of HSWs in Larkana was 26.42 (±5.4) years. Majority were Sindhi speaking (80%), uneducated (68%) and unmarried (97%). In univariate analysis, factors associated with higher prevalence of HIV in Larkana included younger age i.e. 20-24 years (OR: 5.8, CI: 2.809-12.15), being unmarried (OR: 2.4, CI: 1.0-5.7), sex work as the only mode of income (OR: 5.5, CI: 3.70-8.2) and longer duration of being involved in sex work 5-10 years (OR: 3.3, CI: 1.7-6.12). In multivariate logistic regression the HSWs from Larkana were more likely to lack knowledge regarding preventive measures against HIV (OR 11.9, CI: 3.4-41.08) and were more prone to use of alcohol during anal intercourse (OR: 6.3, CI: 2.77-17.797). CONCLUSION: Outreach programs focusing on safer sexual practices and VCT are urgently needed to address the upsurge of HIV among HSWs in Larkana.

Experience of devolution in district health system of Pakistan: perspectives regarding needed reforms.

OBJECTIVE: To identify the strengths and weaknesses of the devolved district health system from the experiences of different stakeholders, and recommend direction for reforms in the existing system. METHODS: Using qualitative exploratory design, the study was conducted in 3 cities of the province of Sindh in Pakistan--Karachi, Khairpur and Larkana--from January to March 2010. Nine in-depth interviews were conducted with multiple stakeholders (District Coordination Officer, Executive District Officer, Medical Superintendent, Medical officers, Health system experts) of the district health system. Interviews included questions on autonomy in decision-making at the district level and the effectiveness of the devolved health system. Data transcripts were made from the recorded tapes and notes taken during the interviews. Thematic analysis was done and the data was classified into 3 broad themes of governance, financing and factors related to resources and service delivery. RESULTS: The main strengths identified included formation of District Health Management Team for wider inter-sectoral collaboration, creation of new posts at sub-district level for close monitoring and supervision, and greater financial autonomy to prioritise according to needs. The reported weaknesses included lack of team work, limited autonomy, lack of capacity, nepotism and poor accountability. CONCLUSION: While devolution has been scrapped in most parts of the country, the findings of the study provide recommendations for the delegation of further powers at sub-district and union council level, enhanced capacity and increased transparency and accountability to make the system work.

Estimating the pre- and post-diagnosis costs of tuberculosis for adults in Pakistan: household economic impact and costs mitigating strategies.

BACKGROUND: Despite free tuberculosis (TB) care in Pakistan, patients still have to bear high costs, which push them into poverty. This study estimated the pre- and post-diagnosis costs households bear for TB care, and investigated coping mechanisms among adults ≥ 18 years in Karachi, Pakistan. METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional study comprising of 516 TB patients identified with completion of at least one month intensive treatment from four public sector health facilities from two institutes in Karachi, Pakistan. A standardized questionnaire to estimate patient's costs was administered. The study outcomes were direct medical and non-medical costs, and indirect costs. The costs were estimated during pre-diagnostic and post-diagnostic phase which includes diagnostic, treatment, and hospitalization phases. A descriptive analysis including mean and standard deviation (± SD), median and interquartile range (IQR), and frequencies and proportions (%) was employed. RESULTS: Out of 516 TB patients, 52.1% were female with a mean age of 32.4 (± 13.7) years. The median costs per patient during the pre-diagnostic, diagnostic, treatment and hospitalization periods were estimated at USD63.8/ PKR7,377, USD24/ PKR2,755, USD10.5/ PKR1,217, and USD349.0/ PKR40,300, respectively. The total household median cost was estimated at USD129.2/ PKR14,919 per patient. The median indirect cost was estimated at USD52.0/ PKR5,950 per patient. Of total, 54.1% of patients preferred and consulted private providers in the first place at the onset of symptoms, while, 36% attended public healthcare services, 5% and 4.1% went to dispensary and pharmacy, respectively, as a first point of care. CONCLUSIONS: TB patients bear substantial out-of-pocket costs before they are enrolled in publically funded TB programs. There should be provision of transport and food vouchers, also health insurance for in-patient treatment. This advocates a critical investigation into an existing financial support network for TB patients in Pakistan towards reducing the burden.

Promoting labour migrant health equity through action on the structural determinants: A systematic review.

BACKGROUND: Labour migrants, who represent over sixty per cent of international migrants globally, frequently have poorer health status than the population of host countries. These health inequities are determined in a large part by structural drivers including political, commercial, economic, normative and social factors, including living and working conditions. Achieving health equity for migrant workers requires structural-level interventions to address these determinants. METHODS: We undertook a systematic review of peer-reviewed literature designed to answer the question "what is the evidence for the effectiveness of interventions to address the structural determinants of health for labour migrants?" using the Ovid Medline electronic database. FINDINGS: We found only two papers that evaluated structural interventions to improve the health of labour migrants. Both papers evaluated the impact of insurance - health or social. In contrast, we found 19 evaluations of more proximal, small-scale interventions focused on changing the knowledge, attitudes and behaviours of labour migrants. INTERPRETATION: Despite the rise in international migration, including for work, and evidence that labour migrants have some higher health risks, there is a paucity of research addressing the structural determinants of health inequities in labour migrants. The research community (including funders and academic institutions) needs to pay greater attention to the structural determinants of health - which generally requires working across disciplines and sectors and thinking more politically about health and health inequities. FUNDING: Wellcome Trust (208712/Z/17/Z).

Social environment and depression among pregnant women in rural areas of Sind, Pakistan.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the relative power of social relations and social conditions in predicting depression using (CES-D scale) among rural pregnant women belonging to Sind, Pakistan. METHODS: The study was conducted from January 2004 tp December 2004. Both qualitative and quantitative methods were employed. During quantitative phase a total of 375 rural pregnant women were inquired about social conditions, social relations and pregnancy related concerns through a questionnaire based form. Variables were given scores when it applied to a situation of a pregnant woman. Concurrently, in a blind set-up, translated and validated Depression Scale (CES-D) was administered. In multivariate linear regression analysis, relation between scores of social relations and social condition variables with scores of CES-D scale were analyzed. RESULTS: Prevalence of depression among rural pregnant women is high (62%).Social conditions as compared to social relations are more important determinants for depression among rural pregnant women. CONCLUSION: There is a high prevalence of depression in rural areas.

Pakistan's Health System Against COVID-19: Where Do Things Stand?

The national response of Pakistan's health system to COVID-19 was assessed by applying a framework of three distinct tiers. The first tier assessed politico-economic ecosystems: lockdown procedures, contact-screening, monetary/organisational arrangements for economically deprived groups, and travel restrictions. The second tier assessed intervention measures according to six building blocks of WHO: strategic vision highlighted by National Action Plan COVID-19, inadequacy and urban bias of healthcare professionals, expanded bed capacity, enhanced laboratory diagnostic capacity and financial assistance. The third tier of community participation revealed that the majority of the population was abiding by restrictions, but sporadic instances of orthodox religious gatherings were facilitating community spread. We recommend private health sector coordination with public facilities and call for deployment of non-practising health professionals. The neighborhood-warden-system should be introduced at the union council level with the help of community level volunteers to facilitate enforcement of quarantines and responding to emerging community needs. Key Words: COVID-19, Coronavirus disease 2019, Pakistan healthcare delivery.

Worsening of the COVID-19 Pandemic in New York City: Analysis of Response Gaps and Challenges at the Public Policy and Community Levels.

This review was aimed to probe into factors that resulted in worsening of novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic in New York City, USA. Extensive review of available information sources, such as scientific literature, COVID-19 data generating websites, expert opinions as well as government briefings and simultaneous measures, were carried out to fulfil the objectives of this paper. Data was arranged in tabular form. Gaps in responding to the pandemic were identified. There was lack of proactivity in measures taken by governments which is due to neo-liberal capitalism on one hand and lack of coordination among three tiers of government on the other. Cosmopolitan features of the city also made it prone to devastating spread of pandemic. Crowded mega cities with incompetent governments in implementing timely public health measures for prevention of spread of COVID-19 are at potential threat of high disease spread across the globe. Keywords: New York City, COVID-19 pandemic, Response gaps, Metropolitan.

Motivating and Demotivating Factors for Community Health Workers Engaged in Maternal, Newborn and Child Health Programs in Low and Middle-Income Countries: A Systematic Review.

This systematic review aimed to synthesize primary research on motivating factors of community health workers (CHWs) for maternal, neonatal, and child health (MNCH) in low and middle-income countries (LMICs). Peer-reviewed literatures were systematically searched in five databases. Identified studies were then screened and selected for inclusion. The eligibility criteria were reported primary qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods research, with participants being CHWs in LMICs who address MNCH, which investigated motivation or related concepts of retention, attrition, and performance. A thematic synthesis process was used to analyze findings of motivating factors, reported by included studies. Seventeen qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods studies met inclusion criteria. Two overarching themes were developed: Levels of motivation (i.e. individual, community, and health system) and stages of motivation (i.e. recruitment, retention, and attrition). Nine sub-themes were further developed at the intersection of each level and stage of motivation. Each subtheme comprises the motivating factors that are influential to community health workers at each stage and level. These themes and sub-themes are presented in a Community Health Worker Motivation Model. The motivation model can be used to identify what motivating factors are relevant to community health workers motivation and the stakeholders necessary to address each motivating factor. Recruitment of community health workers for maternal, neonatal, and child health relies largely on individual level of motivation. At retention, individual level motivating factors remain influential; and community and health system begin to influence motivation positively. But, overall health systems in low and middleincome countries are demotivating the health workers rather than motivating them.