Lessons learned from fostering tobacco taxes in the Americas and implications for other health taxes.

During the past decade progress has been made from a public health perspective in advancing tobacco taxation policies in the World Health Organization's Region of the Americas, and there are important lessons to be learned from this experience. This report aims to systematize and distill the key lessons learned, both by documenting progress and paving the way toward a comprehensive approach to taxing other health-harming products, particularly those considered to be drivers of the noncommunicable disease epidemic, such as alcohol and sugar-sweetened beverages. A thorough review of publications and institutional documents was undertaken and discussions were held with experts about the experiences of the past decade. Broadly, the lessons can be characterized according to the main mechanisms that have fostered progress. These are the robust, consistent and standardized monitoring of tobacco taxes that has enabled comparisons between countries and across time; the setting of tax policy within a framework of multisectoral policy coherence; and the development of guidelines and the generation of independent evidence to support tobacco taxes and tackle harmful industry interference. Currently, progress in these areas is lagging for taxes on alcohol and sugar-sweetened beverages. Applying the lessons learned from the extensive experience with tobacco taxation can help advance progress in taxes on alcohol and sugar-sweetened beverages and capture the potential synergies to be gained from building a comprehensive approach. Although more work is needed in developing and implementing taxation policies across all three products, the findings from this report can assist in strengthening their public health objectives to tackle noncommunicable diseases and improve population health.

Desde una perspectiva de salud pública, en los últimos diez años se ha avanzado en la formulación de políticas de aplicación de impuestos al tabaco en la Región de las Américas de la Organización Mundial de la Salud, y se pueden extraer importantes enseñanzas de esta experiencia. Este informe tiene como objetivo sistematizar y extraer las enseñanzas clave, tanto al documentar el progreso como al allanar el camino hacia un enfoque integral para gravar otros productos dañinos para la salud, particularmente los que se considera que están impulsando la epidemia de las enfermedades no transmisibles, como las bebidas alcohólicas y las bebidas azucaradas. Se llevó a cabo una revisión exhaustiva de las publicaciones y los documentos institucionales, y se celebraron debates con expertos sobre las experiencias del último decenio. En términos generales, las enseñanzas pueden caracterizarse según los principales mecanismos que han fomentado el progreso. Estos mecanismos son: un seguimiento sólido, sistemático y estandarizado de los impuestos al tabaco que ha permitido realizar comparaciones entre países y períodos; el establecimiento de políticas fiscales en un marco de coherencia de las políticas multisectoriales; y la formulación de pautas y obtención de evidencia independiente para apoyar los impuestos sobre el tabaco y hacer frente a la interferencia nociva de la industria. Actualmente, el progreso en estas áreas está rezagado en el caso de los impuestos sobre las bebidas alcohólicas y las bebidas azucaradas. La aplicación de las enseñanzas obtenidas en la amplia experiencia con la tributación del tabaco puede contribuir a avanzar en los impuestos sobre las bebidas alcohólicas y las bebidas azucaradas, así como a las posibles sinergias que se obtendrán de la elaboración de un enfoque integral. Aunque es necesario seguir trabajando más en la formulación y ejecución de políticas tributarias para los tres productos, los hallazgos de este informe pueden contribuir a fortalecer los objetivos de salud pública para abordar las enfermedades no transmisibles y mejorar la salud de la población.

Na última década, sob a perspectiva da saúde pública, houve progresso no avanço das políticas de tributação do tabaco na Região das Américas da Organização Mundial da Saúde, e há lições importantes a serem aprendidas com essa experiência. Este relatório visa a sistematizar e sintetizar as principais lições aprendidas, documentando o progresso e abrindo o caminho para uma abordagem integral de tributação de outros produtos prejudiciais à saúde, especialmente produtos considerados fatores impulsionadores da epidemia de doenças não transmissíveis, como o álcool e as bebidas açucaradas. Realizou-se uma revisão completa de publicações e documentos institucionais e discussões com especialistas sobre as experiências da última década. De modo geral, as lições podem ser caracterizadas segundo os principais mecanismos que promoveram o progresso. São eles: o monitoramento robusto, consistente e padronizado dos impostos sobre o tabaco, o que permitiu fazer comparações entre países e ao longo do tempo; a criação de políticas fiscais em um marco de coerência multissetorial nas políticas; e o desenvolvimento de diretrizes e a geração de evidências independentes para apoiar os impostos sobre o tabaco e combater a interferência nociva da indústria tabagista. Atualmente, o progresso nessas áreas está atrasado em termos de impostos sobre o álcool e as bebidas açucaradas. A aplicação das lições aprendidas com a vasta experiência obtida com a tributação do tabaco pode ajudar a avançar nos impostos sobre o álcool e as bebidas açucaradas e capturar as potenciais sinergias obtidas com a elaboração de uma abordagem integral. Embora seja preciso mais trabalho para desenvolver e implementar políticas de tributação para os três produtos, os achados deste relatório podem ajudar a fortalecer os objetivos de saúde pública de combater as doenças não transmissíveis e melhorar a saúde da população.

Taxation of novel and emerging nicotine and tobacco products (HTPs, ENDS, and ENNDS) globally and in Latin America.

This article provides a snapshot of the market structure and regulatory approaches around novel and emerging tobacco and nicotine products, both globally and in Latin America, with a focus on excise taxation. Using data from leading market research companies, the WHO Report on the Global Tobacco Epidemic 2021, and country laws and decrees, the article analyses the evolution and market structure of heated tobacco products (HTPs), electronic nicotine delivery systems (ENDS), and electronic non-nicotine delivery systems (ENNDS). This is followed by a summary review of regulatory approaches adopted by countries toward these products, with a particular focus on excise tax policies currently implemented. Based on the well-established knowledge about tobacco taxation best practices and on WHO's recent recommendations on the taxation of novel and emerging tobacco and nicotine products, the authors then discuss possible elements of a good tax policy approach for countries to consider.

En este artículo se presenta una sinopsis de la estructura del mercado y los enfoques regulatorios de los productos nuevos y emergentes de nicotina y tabaco, tanto en América Latina como a nivel mundial, con especial atención a los impuestos selectivos al consumo. Mediante datos de las principales empresas de investigación de mercado, el Informe OMS sobre la epidemia mundial de tabaquismo del 2021 y las leyes y los decretos de los países, en este artículo se analizan la evolución y la estructura del mercado de los productos de tabaco calentado (PTC), los sistemas electrónicos de administración de nicotina (SEAN) y los sistemas electrónicos sin nicotina (SESN). Además, se resumen los enfoques regulatorios adoptados por los países en lo relativo a estos productos, prestando particular interés a las políticas que se aplican actualmente con respecto al impuesto selectivo al consumo. Sobre la base de conocimientos bien consolidados sobre las mejores prácticas de tributación del tabaco y las recientes recomendaciones de la OMS sobre la tributación de los productos nuevos y emergentes de nicotina y tabaco, los autores presentan a consideración de los países los posibles elementos de un enfoque para abordar la política tributaria de forma satisfactoria.

Este artigo fornece um retrato da estrutura de mercado e das abordagens regulatórias dos produtos novos e emergentes de tabaco e nicotina, tanto globalmente quanto na América Latina, com foco na tributação sobre o consumo. Utilizando dados das principais empresas de pesquisa de mercado, do Relatório da OMS sobre a Epidemia Global do Tabaco 2021 e de leis e decretos dos países, o artigo analisa a evolução e a estrutura do mercado de produtos de tabaco aquecido (HTPs, sigla do inglês heated tobacco products), sistemas eletrônicos de liberação de nicotina (ENDS, sigla do inglês electronic nicotine delivery system) e sistemas eletrônicos sem nicotina (ENNDS, sigla do inglês electronic non-nicotine delivery system). Segue-se uma breve revisão das abordagens regulatórias adotadas pelos países em relação a esses produtos, com enfoque especial nas políticas tributárias sobre o consumo atualmente implementadas. A seguir, os autores discutem possíveis elementos de uma abordagem adequada de política tributária a serem considerados pelos países, com base no conhecimento já bem estabelecido sobre as melhores práticas de tributação do tabaco e nas recentes recomendações da OMS para a tributação de produtos novos e emergentes de tabaco e nicotina.

Cost-Effectiveness Analysis of Strategies of COVID-19 Vaccination in Colombia: Comparison of High-Risk Prioritization and No Prioritization Strategies With the Absence of a Vaccination Plan.

OBJECTIVES: Our study compares two national COVID-19 vaccination plan strategies-high-risk prioritization and no prioritization-and estimates their cost-effectiveness compared with no vaccination, to generate possible recommendations for future vaccination plans. METHODS: We developed a Markov discrete-time, compartmental, deterministic model stratified by Colombian departments, healthcare workers, comorbidities, and age groups and calibrated to seroprevalence, cases, and deaths. The model simulates three scenarios: no vaccination, no prioritization of vaccination, and prioritization of high-risk population. The study presents the perspective of the health system of Colombia, including the direct health costs financed by the government and the direct health outcomes related to the infection. We measured symptomatic cases, deaths, and costs for each of the three scenarios from the start of the vaccination rollout to February 20, 2023. RESULTS: Both for the base-case and across multiple sensitivity analyses, the high-risk prioritization proves to be the most cost-effective of the considered strategies. An increment of US$255 million results in an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of US$3339 per disability-adjusted life-year avoided. The simulations show that prioritization of high-risk population reduces symptomatic cases by 3.4% and deaths by 20.1% compared with no vaccination. The no-prioritization strategy is still cost-effective, with an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of US$5223.66, but the sensitivity analysis the show potential risks of losing cost-effectiveness under the cost-effectiveness threshold (one gross domestic product per averted disability-adjusted life-year). CONCLUSIONS: The high-risk prioritization strategy is consistently more cost-effective than the no-prioritization strategy across multiple scenarios. High-risk prioritization is the recommended strategy in low-resource settings to reduce the burden of disease.

Lessons learned from fostering tobacco taxes in the Americas and implications for other health taxes / Enseñanzas extraídas de la promoción de los impuestos al tabaco en las Américas e implicaciones para otros impuestos relacionados con la salud / Lições aprendidas com o incentivo a impostos sobre o tabaco nas Américas e implicações para outros impostos de saúde

ABSTRACT During the past decade progress has been made from a public health perspective in advancing tobacco taxation policies in the World Health Organization's Region of the Americas, and there are important lessons to be learned from this experience. This report aims to systematize and distill the key lessons learned, both by documenting progress and paving the way toward a comprehensive approach to taxing other health-harming products, particularly those considered to be drivers of the noncommunicable disease epidemic, such as alcohol and sugar-sweetened beverages. A thorough review of publications and institutional documents was undertaken and discussions were held with experts about the experiences of the past decade. Broadly, the lessons can be characterized according to the main mechanisms that have fostered progress. These are the robust, consistent and standardized monitoring of tobacco taxes that has enabled comparisons between countries and across time; the setting of tax policy within a framework of multisectoral policy coherence; and the development of guidelines and the generation of independent evidence to support tobacco taxes and tackle harmful industry interference. Currently, progress in these areas is lagging for taxes on alcohol and sugar-sweetened beverages. Applying the lessons learned from the extensive experience with tobacco taxation can help advance progress in taxes on alcohol and sugar-sweetened beverages and capture the potential synergies to be gained from building a comprehensive approach. Although more work is needed in developing and implementing taxation policies across all three products, the findings from this report can assist in strengthening their public health objectives to tackle noncommunicable diseases and improve population health.

RESUMEN Desde una perspectiva de salud pública, en los últimos diez años se ha avanzado en la formulación de políticas de aplicación de impuestos al tabaco en la Región de las Américas de la Organización Mundial de la Salud, y se pueden extraer importantes enseñanzas de esta experiencia. Este informe tiene como objetivo sistematizar y extraer las enseñanzas clave, tanto al documentar el progreso como al allanar el camino hacia un enfoque integral para gravar otros productos dañinos para la salud, particularmente los que se considera que están impulsando la epidemia de las enfermedades no transmisibles, como las bebidas alcohólicas y las bebidas azucaradas. Se llevó a cabo una revisión exhaustiva de las publicaciones y los documentos institucionales, y se celebraron debates con expertos sobre las experiencias del último decenio. En términos generales, las enseñanzas pueden caracterizarse según los principales mecanismos que han fomentado el progreso. Estos mecanismos son: un seguimiento sólido, sistemático y estandarizado de los impuestos al tabaco que ha permitido realizar comparaciones entre países y períodos; el establecimiento de políticas fiscales en un marco de coherencia de las políticas multisectoriales; y la formulación de pautas y obtención de evidencia independiente para apoyar los impuestos sobre el tabaco y hacer frente a la interferencia nociva de la industria. Actualmente, el progreso en estas áreas está rezagado en el caso de los impuestos sobre las bebidas alcohólicas y las bebidas azucaradas. La aplicación de las enseñanzas obtenidas en la amplia experiencia con la tributación del tabaco puede contribuir a avanzar en los impuestos sobre las bebidas alcohólicas y las bebidas azucaradas, así como a las posibles sinergias que se obtendrán de la elaboración de un enfoque integral. Aunque es necesario seguir trabajando más en la formulación y ejecución de políticas tributarias para los tres productos, los hallazgos de este informe pueden contribuir a fortalecer los objetivos de salud pública para abordar las enfermedades no transmisibles y mejorar la salud de la población.

RESUMO Na última década, sob a perspectiva da saúde pública, houve progresso no avanço das políticas de tributação do tabaco na Região das Américas da Organização Mundial da Saúde, e há lições importantes a serem aprendidas com essa experiência. Este relatório visa a sistematizar e sintetizar as principais lições aprendidas, documentando o progresso e abrindo o caminho para uma abordagem integral de tributação de outros produtos prejudiciais à saúde, especialmente produtos considerados fatores impulsionadores da epidemia de doenças não transmissíveis, como o álcool e as bebidas açucaradas. Realizou-se uma revisão completa de publicações e documentos institucionais e discussões com especialistas sobre as experiências da última década. De modo geral, as lições podem ser caracterizadas segundo os principais mecanismos que promoveram o progresso. São eles: o monitoramento robusto, consistente e padronizado dos impostos sobre o tabaco, o que permitiu fazer comparações entre países e ao longo do tempo; a criação de políticas fiscais em um marco de coerência multissetorial nas políticas; e o desenvolvimento de diretrizes e a geração de evidências independentes para apoiar os impostos sobre o tabaco e combater a interferência nociva da indústria tabagista. Atualmente, o progresso nessas áreas está atrasado em termos de impostos sobre o álcool e as bebidas açucaradas. A aplicação das lições aprendidas com a vasta experiência obtida com a tributação do tabaco pode ajudar a avançar nos impostos sobre o álcool e as bebidas açucaradas e capturar as potenciais sinergias obtidas com a elaboração de uma abordagem integral. Embora seja preciso mais trabalho para desenvolver e implementar políticas de tributação para os três produtos, os achados deste relatório podem ajudar a fortalecer os objetivos de saúde pública de combater as doenças não transmissíveis e melhorar a saúde da população.

Taxation of novel and emerging nicotine and tobacco products (HTPs, ENDS, and ENNDS) globally and in Latin America / Impuestos a los productos nuevos y emergentes de nicotina y tabaco (PTC, SEAN y SESN) en América Latina y en todo el mundo / Tributação de produtos novos e emergentes de nicotina e tabaco (HTPs, ENDS e ENNDS) no mundo e na América Latina

ABSTRACT This article provides a snapshot of the market structure and regulatory approaches around novel and emerging tobacco and nicotine products, both globally and in Latin America, with a focus on excise taxation. Using data from leading market research companies, the WHO Report on the Global Tobacco Epidemic 2021, and country laws and decrees, the article analyses the evolution and market structure of heated tobacco products (HTPs), electronic nicotine delivery systems (ENDS), and electronic non-nicotine delivery systems (ENNDS). This is followed by a summary review of regulatory approaches adopted by countries toward these products, with a particular focus on excise tax policies currently implemented. Based on the well-established knowledge about tobacco taxation best practices and on WHO's recent recommendations on the taxation of novel and emerging tobacco and nicotine products, the authors then discuss possible elements of a good tax policy approach for countries to consider.

RESUMEN En este artículo se presenta una sinopsis de la estructura del mercado y los enfoques regulatorios de los productos nuevos y emergentes de nicotina y tabaco, tanto en América Latina como a nivel mundial, con especial atención a los impuestos selectivos al consumo. Mediante datos de las principales empresas de investigación de mercado, el Informe OMS sobre la epidemia mundial de tabaquismo del 2021 y las leyes y los decretos de los países, en este artículo se analizan la evolución y la estructura del mercado de los productos de tabaco calentado (PTC), los sistemas electrónicos de administración de nicotina (SEAN) y los sistemas electrónicos sin nicotina (SESN). Además, se resumen los enfoques regulatorios adoptados por los países en lo relativo a estos productos, prestando particular interés a las políticas que se aplican actualmente con respecto al impuesto selectivo al consumo. Sobre la base de conocimientos bien consolidados sobre las mejores prácticas de tributación del tabaco y las recientes recomendaciones de la OMS sobre la tributación de los productos nuevos y emergentes de nicotina y tabaco, los autores presentan a consideración de los países los posibles elementos de un enfoque para abordar la política tributaria de forma satisfactoria.

RESUMO Este artigo fornece um retrato da estrutura de mercado e das abordagens regulatórias dos produtos novos e emergentes de tabaco e nicotina, tanto globalmente quanto na América Latina, com foco na tributação sobre o consumo. Utilizando dados das principais empresas de pesquisa de mercado, do Relatório da OMS sobre a Epidemia Global do Tabaco 2021 e de leis e decretos dos países, o artigo analisa a evolução e a estrutura do mercado de produtos de tabaco aquecido (HTPs, sigla do inglês heated tobacco products), sistemas eletrônicos de liberação de nicotina (ENDS, sigla do inglês electronic nicotine delivery system) e sistemas eletrônicos sem nicotina (ENNDS, sigla do inglês electronic non-nicotine delivery system). Segue-se uma breve revisão das abordagens regulatórias adotadas pelos países em relação a esses produtos, com enfoque especial nas políticas tributárias sobre o consumo atualmente implementadas. A seguir, os autores discutem possíveis elementos de uma abordagem adequada de política tributária a serem considerados pelos países, com base no conhecimento já bem estabelecido sobre as melhores práticas de tributação do tabaco e nas recentes recomendações da OMS para a tributação de produtos novos e emergentes de tabaco e nicotina.

Diffusion of community empowerment strategies for Aedes aegypti control in Cuba: a muddling through experience.

Effective participatory strategies in dengue control have been developed and assessed as small-scale efforts. The challenge is to scale-up and institutionalize these strategies within dengue control programs. We describe and critically analyze the diffusion process of an effective empowerment strategy within the Cuban Aedes aegypti control program, focusing on decision-making at the national level, to identify ways forward to institutionalize such strategies in Cuba and elsewhere. From 2005 to 2009, we carried out a process-oriented case study. We used participant observation, in-depth interviews with key informants involved in the diffusion process and document analysis. In a first phase, the data analysis was inductive. In a second phase, to enhance robustness of the analysis, emerging categories were contrasted with Rogers' five-stage conceptual model of the innovation-decision process, which was eventually used as the analytical framework. The diffusion of the empowerment strategy was a continuous and dynamic process. Adoption was a result of the perceived potential match between the innovative empowerment strategy and the performance gap of the Ae. aegypti control program. During implementation, the strategy was partially modified by top level Ae. aegypti control program decision-makers to accommodate program characteristics. However, structure, practices and organizational culture of the control program did not change significantly. Thus rejection occurred. It was mainly due to insufficient dissemination of know-how and underlying principles of the strategy by innovation developers, but also to resistance to change. The innovation-diffusion process has produced mitigated results to date, and the control program is still struggling to find ways to move forward. Improving the innovation strategy by providing the necessary knowledge about the innovation and addressing control program organizational changes is crucial for successful diffusion of empowerment strategies. Issues highlighted in this particular experience might be relevant in the innovation-diffusion process of other complex innovations within health systems.

Computational basis for risk stratification of peripheral neuropathy from thermal imaging.

The goal of this paper is to present a computer-based system for analyzing thermal images in the detection of preclinical stages of peripheral neuropathy (PN) or diabetic foot. Today, vibration perception threshold (VPT) and sensory tests with a monofilament are used as simple, noninvasive methods for identifying patients who have lost sensation in their feet. These tests are qualitative and are ineffective in stratifying risk for PN in a diabetic patient. In our system a cold stimulus applied to the foot causes a thermoregulatory and corresponding microcirculation response of the foot. A thermal video monitors the recovery of the microcirculation in the foot plantar. Thermal videos for 8 age-matched subjects were analyzed. Six sites were tracked and an average thermal emittance calculated. Characteristics of the recovery curve were extracted using coefficients from an exponential curve fitting process and compared among subjects. The magnitude of the recovery was significantly different for the two classes of subjects. Our system shows evidence of differences between both groups, which could lead to a quantitative test to screen and diagnose peripheral neuropathy.

Automated analysis of optic nerve images for detection and staging of papilledema.

PURPOSE: To develop an automated system that analyzes digital fundus images for staging and monitoring of optic disc edema (i.e., papilledema), due to raised intracranial pressure. METHODS: A total of 294 retrospective, digital photographs of the right and left eyes of 39 subjects with papilledema acquired over the span of 2 years were used. Software tools were developed to analyze three features of papilledema from digital fundus photographs: (1) sharpness of the optic disc border, (2) discontinuity along major vessels overlying the optic nerve, and (3) texture properties of the peripapillary retinal nerve fiber layer (RNFL). A classifier used these features to assign a grade of papilledema according to a standard protocol used by an expert neuro-ophthalmologist (RK). RESULTS: The algorithm showed substantial agreement (κ = 0.71, P < 0.001) with the neuro-ophthalmologist when grading papilledema per patient. Vessel features showed statistical significance (P < 0.05) in differentiating grades 0, 1, and 2 from grades 3 and 4, whereas disc obscuration differentiated grades 0 or 1 from the rest (P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: These results show that this algorithm can be used to automatically grade papilledema. The algorithm provides objective and quantitative assessment of the stage of papilledema with accuracy that is comparable to grading by a neuro-ophthalmologist. One application is in rapid assessment of digital optic nerve photographs acquired in clinical, intensive care, and emergency response settings by nonophthalmologists to evaluate for the presence and severity of papilledema, due to intracranial hypertension.

Automatic detection of diabetic retinopathy and age-related macular degeneration in digital fundus images.

PURPOSE: To describe and evaluate the performance of an algorithm that automatically classifies images with pathologic features commonly found in diabetic retinopathy (DR) and age-related macular degeneration (AMD). METHODS: Retinal digital photographs (N = 2247) of three fields of view (FOV) were obtained of the eyes of 822 patients at two centers: The Retina Institute of South Texas (RIST, San Antonio, TX) and The University of Texas Health Science Center San Antonio (UTHSCSA). Ground truth was provided for the presence of pathologic conditions, including microaneurysms, hemorrhages, exudates, neovascularization in the optic disc and elsewhere, drusen, abnormal pigmentation, and geographic atrophy. The algorithm was used to report on the presence or absence of disease. A detection threshold was applied to obtain different values of sensitivity and specificity with respect to ground truth and to construct a receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve. RESULTS: The system achieved an average area under the ROC curve (AUC) of 0.89 for detection of DR and of 0.92 for detection of sight-threatening DR (STDR). With a fixed specificity of 0.50, the system's sensitivity ranged from 0.92 for all DR cases to 1.00 for clinically significant macular edema (CSME). CONCLUSIONS: A computer-aided algorithm was trained to detect different types of pathologic retinal conditions. The cases of hard exudates within 1 disc diameter (DD) of the fovea (surrogate for CSME) were detected with very high accuracy (sensitivity = 1, specificity = 0.50), whereas mild nonproliferative DR was the most challenging condition (sensitivity = 0.92, specificity = 0.50). The algorithm was also tested on images with signs of AMD, achieving a performance of AUC of 0.84 (sensitivity = 0.94, specificity = 0.50).