A simple non-powered passive trap for the collection of mosquitoes for arbovirus surveillance.

Mosquitoes often are collected as part of an arbovirus surveillance program. However, trapping and processing of mosquitoes for arbovirus detection is often costly and difficult in remote areas. Most traps, such as the gold standard Center for Disease control light trap, require batteries that must be charged and changed overnight. To overcome this issue we have developed several passive traps for collection of mosquitoes that have no power requirements. The passive traps capture mosquitoes as they follow a CO2 plume up a polyvinyl chloride pipe leading to a clear chamber consisting of a plastic crate. We believe the translucent, clear windows created by the crate inhibits escape. Once inside the crate mosquitoes readily feed on honey-treated Flinders Technology Associates cards that then can be processed by polymerase chain reaction for viral ribonucleic acid. Of the two designs tested, the box or crate-based passive trap (passive box trap, PBT) generally caught more mosquitoes than the cylinder trap. In Latin square field trials in Cairns and Florida, PBTs collected mosquitoes at rates of 50 to 200% of Center for Disease Control model 512 light traps. Mosquito collections by PBTs can be increased by splitting the CO2 gas line so it services two traps, or by placing an octenol lure to the outside of the box. Very large collections can lead to crowding at honey-treated cards, reducing feeding rates. Addition of fipronil to the honey killed mosquitoes and did not impact feeding rates nor the ability to detect Kunjin viral ribonucleic acid by polymerase chain reaction; this could be used to minimize crowding affects on feeding caused by large collections. The passive traps we developed are made from inexpensive, commonly available materials. Passive traps may thus be suitable for collection of mosquitoes and potentially other hematophagous dipterans for pathogen surveillance.

Exploiting mosquito sugar feeding to detect mosquito-borne pathogens.

Arthropod-borne viruses (arboviruses) represent a global public health problem, with dengue viruses causing millions of infections annually, while emerging arboviruses, such as West Nile, Japanese encephalitis, and chikungunya viruses have dramatically expanded their geographical ranges. Surveillance of arboviruses provides vital data regarding their prevalence and distribution that may be utilized for biosecurity measures and the implementation of disease control strategies. However, current surveillance methods that involve detection of virus in mosquito populations or sero-conversion in vertebrate hosts are laborious, expensive, and logistically problematic. We report a unique arbovirus surveillance system to detect arboviruses that exploits the process whereby mosquitoes expectorate virus in their saliva during sugar feeding. In this system, infected mosquitoes captured by CO(2)-baited updraft box traps are allowed to feed on honey-soaked nucleic acid preservation cards within the trap. The cards are then analyzed for expectorated virus using real-time reverse transcription-PCR. In field trials, this system detected the presence of Ross River and Barmah Forest viruses in multiple traps deployed at two locations in Australia. Viral RNA was preserved for at least seven days on the cards, allowing for long-term placement of traps and continuous collection of data documenting virus presence in mosquito populations. Furthermore no mosquito handling or processing was required and cards were conveniently shipped to the laboratory overnight. The simplicity and efficacy of this approach has the potential to transform current approaches to vector-borne disease surveillance by streamlining the monitoring of pathogens in vector populations.

Arboviruses isolated from mosquitoes collected from urban and peri-urban areas of eastern Australia.

To determine the presence of arboviruses in mosquito populations from major urban areas of eastern Australia, a total of 67,825 mosquitoes, representing -60 species, was collected and tested from Cairns, Brisbane, and Sydney between January 2005 and April 2008. Mosquito pools were screened by inoculation onto mosquito cell cultures and the detection of viral antigen using a panel of flavivirus and alphavirus monoclonal antibodies in an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Suspect positive samples were confirmed using virus-specific real-time reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction assays. No flaviviruses were detected, but 2 alphaviruses were isolated from mosquito pools collected from Cairns, with 1 Barmah Forest virus isolate from a pool of 100 Aedes vigilax and 1 Ross River virus isolate from a pool of 83 Verrallina carmenti. In addition, a single Aedes alternans collected from Sydney yielded an isolate most similar to Stretch Lagoon virus, a newly described virus from the genus Orbivirus. These results suggest that during the study, arboviruses were circulating at a low level in the areas sampled. The findings from this study will promote public health awareness of the risk of arboviruses in urban areas, leading to more informative public health campaigns to safeguard the Australian public.

Efficacy of novel updraft traps for collection of mosquitoes in Cairns, Australia.

We conducted trials in Cairns, Australia, to examine if novel updraft light traps collected significantly more mosquitoes than the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) model 512 miniature light trap. Two new updraft traps, the Northern Australia Quarantine Strategy (NAQS) Mozzie Trap and a CDC updraft trap, both collected significantly more mosquitoes than the standard CDC light trap, with a mean CDC Trap Index (trap collections relative to paired standard CDC light trap collections) of 3.3 and 2.3, respectively. These traps both had large horizontal suction areas that increased the probability that attracted mosquitoes entered the trap updraft. However, if the CO2 source was located within the updraft of the CDC updraft trap, mosquito collections decreased considerably, indicating that placement of the bait is critical to trap performance. Creating an updraft by simply inverting the CDC trap body did not increase collections. The Mosquito Magnet X trap also did not collect significantly more mosquitoes than the CDC trap. Two CDC light traps sharing a 600 ml CO2/min gas line collected ca. 50% more mosquitoes than a single CDC trap baited with 600 ml CO2/min, suggesting that a single gas source could be used on a trap line consisting of multiple trap units. These studies suggest that the optimal trap design should incorporate a CO2 release system that lures mosquitoes to a large updraft within a bowl-shaped trap intake.

Operational trials of remote mosquito trap systems for Japanese encephalitis virus surveillance in the Torres Strait, Australia.

Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) appears nearly annually in the Torres Strait in far northern Queensland, Australia, and is a threat to invade the Australian mainland. Surveillance has involved the use of sentinel pigs that develop detectable viremias and antibody titers to JEV. However, pigs are amplifying hosts for JEV, and thus pose a health risk to the public and to pig handlers who bleed the pigs. A remote mosquito trap system would not have these risks. We report on trials using a remote mosquito trap system for the surveillance of JEV in the Torres Strait. The Mosquito Magnet (MM) Pro, MM Liberty Plus, and a novel updraft trap, the NAQS Mozzie Trap, were run at Badu and Moa islands in the Torres Strait and at Bamaga in the northern Cape York Peninsula from 2002-2005. TaqMan real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was used to detect JEV nucleic acid in weekly mosquito collections. Sentinel pigs located at Badu were also bled and the serum processed by reverse transcriptase (RT)-PCR for JEV antigen and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for anti-JEV antibodies. JEV was detected in mosquito collections each year but not in each trap. No JEV was detected in trapped mosquitoes before detection in sentinel pigs. The mosquito trap system cost ca. AU$10,000 per site, about AU$5,000 less than a pig-based system. However, trap failures caused by mosquito-clogged motors, electrical faults, and blocked gas lines reduced the efficacy of some mosquito traps. Nonetheless, a remote mosquito trap system, employing stand alone traps and PCR for viral antigen detection, can be a safe, economical way to detect arbovirus activity in remote areas.

Short report: the first isolation of Japanese encephalitis virus from mosquitoes collected from mainland Australia.

In response to an incursion of Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) on Cape York Peninsula, Australia, in 2005, 23,144 Culex mosquitoes were processed for virus detection. A single isolate of JEV was obtained from a pool of Culex sitiens subgroup mosquitoes. This is the first reported mosquito isolate of JEV from the Australian mainland.

Does 1-octen-3-ol enhance trap collections of Japanese encephalitis virus mosquito vectors in northern Australia?

The responses of Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) mosquito vectors to 1-octen-3-ol (octenol) and CO2 were evaluated using Centers for Disease Control (CDC) light traps at 3 sites in northern Australia. There was no significant difference between the number of Culex sitiens subgroup mosquitoes or Cx. gelidus collected in CDC light traps baited with either CO2 alone or CO2 + octenol on Badu Island. At both mainland locations, using octenol in combination with CO2 significantly increased collections of Cx. sitiens subgroup mosquitoes. Collections of nontarget species, such as Ochlerotatus spp., Anopheles spp., and Verrallina spp. were also significantly increased with the addition of octenol. At all 3 locations, reducing collections of nontarget mosquitoes by not using octenol increased the proportion of Culex spp. collected, thus potentially reducing the time and resources required to sort and process collections for JEV detection. Our results also indicate that trials into the efficacy of using octenol as an attractant should be carried out in each area prior to the implementation of a mosquito-based arbovirus surveillance system.

Flavivirus isolations from mosquitoes collected from western Cape York Peninsula, Australia, 1999-2000.

After the 1st appearance of Japanese encephalitis virus (JE) on mainland Australia in 1998, a study was undertaken to investigate whether JE had become established in enzootic transmission cycles on western Cape York Peninsula. Adult mosquitoes were collected during the late wet season from Kowanyama and Pormpuraaw in April 1999, and Pormpuraaw and Barr's Yard in April 2000. Despite processing 269,270 mosquitoes for virus isolation, no isolates of JE were obtained. However, other flaviviruses comprising Murray Valley encephalitis virus, Kunjin virus, Alfuy virus, and Kokobera virus (KOK) were isolated. Isolates of the alphaviruses Ross River virus, Barmah Forest virus (BF), and Sindbis virus (SIN) also were obtained. The majority (88%) of isolates were from members of the Culex sitiens subgroup. Single isolates of KOK, BF, and SIN were obtained from Ochlerotatus vigilax, Oc. normanensis, and Anopheles bancroftii, respectively. The isolations of flaviviruses during the late wet season indicate that conditions were suitable for flavivirus activity in the area. No evidence was found to suggest that JE has become established in enzootic transmission cycles on western Cape York, although study sites and field trips were limited.

Blood sources of mosquitoes collected from urban and peri-urban environments in eastern Australia with species-specific molecular analysis of avian blood meals.

To identify the hosts of mosquitoes collected from urban and peri-urban habitats in eastern Australia, 1,180 blood fed mosquitoes representing 15 species were analyzed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and molecular techniques. Four common and epidemiologically important species could be classified according to their host-feeding patterns: Aedes aegypti was anthropophilic, Ae. vigilax was mammalophilic, Culex quinquefasciatus was ornithophilic, and Cx. annulirostris was opportunistic, readily feeding on birds and mammals. Mitochondrial cytochrome b DNA sequence data showed that more than 75% of avian blood meals identified from Cx. annulirostris collected from Brisbane, Newcastle, and Sydney originated from ducks (Order Anseriformes, Family Anatidae). More than 75% of avian blood meals from Cx. quinquefasciatus from Cairns belonged to one of three Passerine species, namely Sphecotheres vieilloti (figbird), Sturnus tristis (common myna), and Philemon buceroides (helmeted friarbird). This study demonstrates associations between vectors in Australia and vertebrate hosts of endemic and exotic arboviruses.