Antifungal activity and mechanism of tetramycin against Alternaria alternata, the soft rot causing fungi in kiwifruit.

Kiwifruit rot caused by the fungus Alternaria alternata occurs in many countries, leading to considerable losses during kiwifruit production. In this study, we evaluated the antifungal activity and mechanism of tetramycin against kiwifruit soft rot caused by Alternaria alternata. Tetramycin exerted antifungal effects through the suppression of mycelial growth, conidial germination, and the pathogenicity of A. alternata. Scanning electron microscopic observations revealed that tetramycin destroyed the mycelial structure, causing the mycelia to twist, shrink, and even break. Furthermore, transmission electron microscopy revealed that tetramycin caused severe plasmolysis and a decrease in cell inclusions, and the cell wall appeared thinner with blurred boundaries. In addition, tetramycin destroyed cell membrane integrity, resulting in the leakage of cellular components such as nucleic acids and proteins in mycelial suspensions. Moreover, tetramycin also caused cell wall lysis by enhancing the activities of chitinase and ß-1,3-glucanase and inducing the overexpression of related chitinase gene (Chit) and ß-1,3-glucanase gene (ß-1,3-glu) in A. alternata. In field trials, tetramycin not only decreased the incidence of kiwifruit rot but also create a beneficial living space for kiwifruit growth. Overall, this study indicated that the application of tetramycin could serve as an alternative measure for the management of kiwifruit rot.

Antifungal Activity and Biocontrol Mechanism of Fusicolla violacea J-1 against Soft Rot in Kiwifruit Caused by Alternaria alternata.

Alternaria alternata is the main pathogenic species of various crops, including kiwifruit (Actinidia cinensis). In this study, an antagonistic fungus, J-1, with high antifungal activity against A. alternata was isolated from A. cinensis "Hongyang." The strain J-1 was identified as Fusicolla violacea via morphological identification and DNA sequencing. This study aimed to evaluate the antifungal activity and potential mechanism of the strain J-1 against A. alternata. The strain J-1 exhibited antifungal activity against A. alternata, with an inhibition rate of 66.1% in vitro. Aseptic filtrate (AF) produced by the strain J-1 could suppress the mycelial growth and conidia germination of A. alternata at the inhibition rates of 66.8% and 80%, respectively, as well as suppress the spread of Alternaria rot in fresh kiwifruit. We observed that many clusters of spherical protrusions appeared at the mycelial tips of A. alternata after treatment with 200 mL L-1 AF of J-1. Scanning electron microscopy analysis results showed that the mycelial structures were bent and/or malformed and the surfaces were rough and protuberant. Variations in temperature, pH, and storage time had little effect on the antifungal activity of the AF. Moreover, the AF could damage the integrity of cell membranes and cause intracellular content leakage. Meanwhile, the chitinase and ß-1,3-glucanase enzyme activities increased significantly, indicating that the function of A. alternata cell wall was seriously injured. Eleven antimicrobial metabolites were identified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The strain J-I and its AF exhibited well broad-spectrum antifungal activity against Diaporthe eres, Epicoccum sorghinum, Fusarium graminearum, Phomopsis sp., and Botryosphaeria dothidea, with inhibition rates ranging from 34.4% to 75.1% and 42.7% to 75.2%, respectively. Fusicolla violacea J-1 is a potential biocontrol agent against A. alternata and other fungal phytopathogens.

[Efficiency of atrazine degradation by O3/H2O2].

The endocrine disrupter Atrazine was oxidized by O3/H2O2 system and the products were analyzed to assess the degradation efficiency of Atrazine. When it's initial content was 2 mg/L and O3 dosage was 7.5 mg/L, Atrazine was removed about 27.2% after 5 minutes. Under the same condition, H2O2/O3 molar ratio was 0.75, Atrazine maximum removal rate reached 96.5%, which suggested that Atrazine could be degraded by O3/H2O2 system effectively. Ion Chromatography (IC) analysis showed that concentrations of chloride and nitrate ions were increasing along with the Atrazine content decreasing. Gas Chromatography-Mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and Liquid Chromatography-Mass spectrometry chromatograms (LC-MS) analyzing illuminated the existence of de-ethyl-atrazine, de-isopropyl-atrazine and de-chloro-atrazine, which indicated the Atrazine could not be destroyed completely by O3/H2O2 system. Consequently, it should be combined with GAC (Granular Activated Carbon) or other techniques while used as primary treatment unit or emergency measure.

[Degradation of simazine by O3/H2O2 system].

The endocrine disrupter simazine was oxidized by O3/H2O2 and the reactive productions was analyzed by chromatography to assess the degradation efficiency of Simazine. The initial content of Simazine 2 mg/L was removed about 87.1% by O3H2O2 system when the O3 was dosed as 10.0 mg/L, the H2O2/O3 molar ratio was 0.70, the temperature was 26 degrees C and pH 7-8, which indicated Simazine could be conveniently removed by O3/H2O2 system in ordinary reactive condition. The simazine removal ratio in tap water was 10% more than it in purified water up to 86.9%. The removal of simazine was decreased when the content of humic acid (HA) was high, whereas it was increased while low content HA in water. Also, the removal efficiency was inhabited by hydrogen carbonate fairly. The deethyl-simazine (DES) was trapped by Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrum(GC-MS) which was also certificated by analyzing the Liquid Chromatography Mass Spectrum (LC-MS) of the products. The Ion Chromatography spectrum showed the existing of de-chloro-procedure and breakage of triazine ring. Which indicated the oxidizability of O3/H2O2 system was fairly strong.